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Home > Policy > White Paper, Notice, Announcement > White Paper > WHITE PAPER ON SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY2003 > Part1 1.2 1.2.2

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Part1 Human Resources in Science and Technology Required of Japan in the Future
1.2 Trends in Human Resources in Science and Technology in Japan and Other Nations
1.2.2 Policy Trends in Human Re-sources in Scienceand Technology in Major Countries


  This section will introduce some examples of policy efforts in HRST being made in different countries.

(Plans Related to the Securing of HRST)

  Countries around the world are drawing up plans to secure human resources in science and technology.

  In France,for instance,a large number of science and technology personnel,including researchers and technicians,are anticipated to retire from government sector research institutes between now and2010.In order to take this opportunity to strengthen research in the government sector,France established a"10year plan(2001-2010)concerning the management of HRST."This plan provides for a40%turnover in research personnel during a10year period,securing the future for young Ph.D.s.It also sets an upper age limit on20%of posts with mandatory retirement,which will allow for redistribution of research posts to priority fields(life sciences,IT,environment).The plan also promotes personnel mobility by doubling the number of posts that mutually accept personnel between research institutions and universities.

  Large numbers of retirees are also being seen in other countries in Europe.In Sweden,for instance,there is anxiety over personnel shortages due to the retirement of older researchers,causing responses including promotion of the supply of personnel from unconventional areas such as female students,and the intensive infusion of large amounts of capital to propel research in new fields through the hiring of new researchers,focusing particularly on young researchers(Research policy bill"Research and Regeneration"(September2000)).

  Additionally,in2001China formulated its"10th5-Year Plan to Develop Science and Technology"as a basic plan for science and technology.The plan will reputedly bring the number of researchers and technicians engaged in research and development activities throughout the nation to900,000by the year2005.(As of1996there were roughly550,000researchers and technicians engaged in R&D activities in China and roughly700,000as of2000.)

(Responses to the Mobilization of HRST)

As globalization progresses,the race to acquire personnel who possess advanced skills and knowledge,including IT technicians,is intensifying,causing countries to implement measures to promote the acceptance of such personnel from abroad.

The United States is a nation that has thus far developed through the acceptance of personnel from around the world,including science and technology personnel,who flow in large numbers into the U.S.from every corner of the globe.As of1999,among those who had obtained a doctoral degree in the United States,students of foreign nationality accounted for36%in the natural sciences and49%in engineering,and28%of doctoral degree holders working at universities and one-third working in the private sector were foreign nationals.In addition,more than50%of foreigners who obtain a doctoral degree in the United States remain there after graduation.Moreover,the United States is attempting to increase its acceptance of personnel by expanding(recently,for a three year period starting in2001)issuance of the H-1B visa,which is a temporary work visa for professionals.Although investigations for visa issuance have become more rigid following the synchronized terrorist attacks on September11,2001,there will likely be no change in the status of the U.S.as the largest receiver of HRST.

  At the same time,countries besides the United States are also implementing various measures to promote the acceptance of foreign personnel.Germany,for instance,introduced in2000a"green card system"that gives approval to information technology professionals to work in Germany for fixed periods.United Kingdom introduced a point system in2002with the aim of securing workers who possess advanced skills and experience.Additionally,Singapore and others have relaxed the qualification criteria for foreign workers and students,and are also providing government aid in order to attract foreign personnel in an effort to acquire high-caliber personnel.

  Furthermore,under the initiative of United Kingdom,and within the framework of the EU,various programs have been established in order to increase the mobility of researchers.These include programs for EU researchers to defray the costs(for1to2years)incurred in performing research in other countries within the EU and a system to defray the research expenses incurred in performing research in countries outside the EU.There is a two year limit on research outside the EU,and in order to prevent a brain drain,researchers are expected to perform research inside the EU within a year following the two years of outside research.

  Concerning measures to counter"brain drain,"China for one has implemented various measures to encourage Chinese students studying abroad to return home,the low rate of which has become a problem.Measures implemented by China include a program that offers support to exceptional Chinese students residing abroad for short-term temporary returns home and long-term appointments,a program that supports the science research costs of returnees and expenses needed for research guidance following return home,and also preferential treatment for returnees and their families.

(Support of young researchers and women researchers)

  For support of young researchers,the United States,for example,has well developed systems for providing financial assistance to graduate students using funds from the federal government and other sources.These primarily include research assistantships(RAs),teaching assistantships(TAs),fellowships,and traineeships,with the number of students receiving aid decreasing in that order(Science and Engineering Indicators2002).Moreover,the United States also allows research expense subsidies from the government to be used to defray the living costs of students who participate in research(see page64for information on the competitive funding system for researchers with little research experience).

  France has established systems to develop young researchers,including an open-type research program(ACI:Incentive Concerted Action)that covers research expenses over a three-year period to allow young researchers age40and younger to conduct independent research,and a program(CIFRE:Industrial Convention for Training in Research)to support the attainment of the doctoral degree by subsidizing(generally for three years)expenses incurred during in-service training in which young researchers who are preparing for the doctoral degree conduct practical research within the framework of a business enterprise that has a cooperation agreement with the French government.

  German institutions of higher education have a history of generally not recognizing the independent educational and research activities of assistants,but only those of professors(including those who would be lecturers or associate professors in Japan).To be hired as a university professor,the convention up to now has required that,in principle,people spend8to10years to obtain university professorship qualifications(Habilitation),which has led to the common saying that employment as a professor comes only after age40,and also to the recent trend of an outward flow to foreign countries or the private sector of young researchers who are avoiding this system.In response,the Higher Education Framework Law was amended in2002,newly establishing the post of"junior professorship"(with the attendant discontinuance of"assistants"),which provides recognition of the independent research activities of those with less than six years tenure.The amendment also abolishes the Habilitation and as a general rule sets tenure experience as a junior professor as the condition for employment as a full professor.

  Measures implemented in United Kingdom in-clude an increase in benefits to doctoral students(from an average yearly allowance of9,000pounds(about1.58million yen)to over13,000pounds(about2.28million yen))and an extension of benefit periods(longer than three years).Additionally,in order to facilitate the finding of employment by doctoral degree holders and to provide high quality R&D at business enterprises,a system of courses has been established for acquiring needed skills such as management and finance that go beyond specialist knowledge.For postdoctoral researchers,measures have been established that include increased allowances,improved and strengthened training,and1,000newly allotted5-year fellowships.

  Concerning support given to women researchers,the report"SET Fair,A report on Women in Science,Engineering and Technology"submitted by an inquiry commission(the Greenfield Commission)in the Department of Trade and Industry in United Kingdom in2002,for instance,called for measures to achieve the active use of women researchers.The report included recommendations for the establishment of a resource center for women researchers that can act as a bridge between various women researcher groups,the government,and the business world,and support to get1,500women to return to work by2007through establishment of fellowships and educational assistance.The report also recommended the preparation of a list of the top50women researchers,and an increase in the percentage of women committee members in government councils and university professorships(40%for councils and20%for university professorships).The government is currently examining concrete implementation measures.

  In addition,in2001Germany implemented the"Equal Opportunities for Women in Research and Higher Education"program,which is jointly operated by the federal and state governments to promote the advance of women into the science and education fields.The program specifically provides assistance to women following receipt of a doctoral degree,and assistance and aid to female science and engineering students to obtain their degrees.The percentage of women professors at German universities stood at11%as of2001,which is low within the EU.The federal government has therefore set the goal of raising the percentage to20%by2005.

(Measures to Counter Estrangement from Science and Technology,and Science Education)

  "Estrangement from science and technology"is a phenomenon shared in common by developed countries,all of which promote activities to further understanding of science and technology and are working to strengthen science-related education.

  In recent years,Germany has experienced anxiety over the declining interest of schoolchildren in science and technology.In the"Program for International Student Assessment(PISA)"survey published by the OECD in December2001,Germany placed in the low position of20th in scientific and mathematical literacy among32nations.This has become a major object of public concern.German states have implemented various programs to reeducate teachers with priority placed on mathematics and to strengthen science and mathematics curriculums.The federal and state governments are jointly carrying out the"Program to Improve the Efficiency of Mathematics and Science Teaching,"which aims to heighten the quality teaching through the creation of teacher networks.

  Estrangement from science and technology is being perceived as a serious problem in the United States as well,where numerous support programs are being established related to science education.The Mathematics and Science Partnership Program,for instance,is a program that aims to improve mathematics and science learning in elementary and secondary education by setting up a cooperation system between elementary and secondary education organizations and scientists and engineers at research institutes or higher education organizations.Roughly2hundred million dollars were budgeted for the program in FY2003.

  United Kingdom has announced its goal of becoming the number one nation in furnishing information and telecommunications technology skills.In order to improve science and technology and IT skills,Britain implemented measures such as the construction of networks that raise the interest of young people age16and younger in science and technology,and the"Science and Engineering Ambassadors"program,in which scientists and engineers visit schools to support teachers'instruction.

  With the establishment in France of points of contact between scientists and the general public,known as the"Science Festival,"programs are implemented that educate a public that can discuss science and technology by giving them indispensable knowledge about science and technology.In FY2001,programs were conducted in750cities and towns within the nation with the participation of1.1million people(among which250,000were schoolchildren and5,000scientists).

  The estrangement from science by students in the Republic of Korea has been pointed out,with the percentage of high school graduates proceeding into the science and engineering fields declining from42%in1998to26.9%in2001.Consequently,the Korean government supports educational plans for outstanding young people in order to heighten the interest of young people in science and strengthen science and technology education.The government is also moving forward with plans to promote educational enhancement at distinguished science high schools and the progression of young people into the science and engineering fields.

  Science and engineering enjoy high popularity among students in China,and there is currently no public concern over estrangement from science and technology.Nonetheless,activities are being promoted to spread science and technology knowledge,such as the enactment of the"Science and Technology Popularization Law"in June2002,which aims to further strengthen the grounding of science culture across the entire nation and promote economic development and social progress.


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