a. Higher Education in the Early Meiji Era

After the Meiji Restoration, the new government revived and consolidated former Shogunal schools known as the Shoheizaka Gakumonjo, the Kaiseijo and the Igakujo into new institutions called respectively the Shohei Gakko, the Kaisei Gakko and the Medical School (Igakko), as stated in Chapter 1. As these institutions had formerly emphasized National and Chinese scholarship, the government's plan was to reform their curriculums so as to include more Western learning and make them into the Grand School for the new educational system. However, the inability of the National and Chinese factions to achieve cooperation made it impossible for them to continue instruction in the Central College of the Grand School (Daigakko Honko) and ultimately, in 1870 after the Grand School was renamed the University, brought about the closing of the Central College of the University (Daigaku Honko). In September, 1871, the University was abolished and the Southern and Eastern Colleges of the University were taken over by the newly established Department of Education and thereafter simply called the Southern and Eastern Colleges, and around these institutions the government established the nucleus of its higher educational system.

In addition to these schools, there were also several other government schools specialized in Western learning such as Nagasaki Medical School (Nagasaki Igakko) and Osaka Kaiseijo as well as private institutions such as Keiogijuku and Kogyokujuku. In many fields of study, the high level of Western learning at these latter institutions ranked with that at the Southern and Eastern Colleges.

According to the original provisions of the Education System Order, universities were to be established as schools for offering the highest level of education in science, chemistry, law, medicine and mathematics (later revised to specify science, literature, law and medicine). The April 17, 1873 supplementary regulations to the Education System Order provided for the awarding of a bachelor's degree upon graduation.

On April 28, 1873, supplementary regulations to the Education System Order were issued which redesignated all schools of higher learning where instruction was given by foreign teachers as specialized schools. Entrance requirements for these schools stated that the applicant must be at least sixteen years of age and must have completed elementary education as well as two years of the lower course of a foreign language school. In all the specialized schools three years of basic preparatory work were required plus four years of regular courses in the polytechnic, science and medical schools; three years of regular courses in the engineering, mining and law schools; and two years of regular courses in the veterinary, commercial and agricultural schools.

Foreign language schools admitted both those intended to proceed to specialized schools and those who wished to train as translators and interpreters. The entrance requirements stated that the applicants should be at least fourteen years of age and graduates of an elementary school. The foreign language schools were to provide upper and lower courses of two years each. Applicants for specialized schools graduated after two years in the lower course whereas students specializing in foreign languages proceeded to the upper course.

In September, 1872, immediately following the proclamation of the Education System Order, the Southern College became the First MiddIe School of the First University District and the Eastern College became the Medical School of that same District. In April, 1873, the First Middle School of the First University District was reorganized as a specialized school and called the Kaisei Gakko of the First University District but shortly thereafter, in May, 1874, renamed Tokyo Kaisei Gakko. The Medical School of the First University District was also redesignated as Tokyo Medical School in May, 1874. In 1874, Tokyo Kaisei Gakko offered a six-year course of which the first three years were the preparatory course and the last three years included regular courses specialized in law, chemistry and engineering. Tokyo Medical School, on the other hand, was a center for Western medical education with instruction given in German. The seven-year (later eight-year) course there was divided into two (later three) years of preparatory work and five years of regular courses. It had by far the best equipped facilities for medical education of its time in Japan. In addition there were courses in pharmaceutics as well as an abbreviated medical training program for day students.

The sine qua non for those students who wished to avail themselves of higher specialized education in the early Meiji era was a knowledge of foreign languages. Up till the time of the proclamation of the Education System Order practically every course offered in the Southern and Eastern Colleges was based on English, French or German texts. English was especially important.

In November, 1873, the government established Tokyo School of Foreign Languages by merging the Foreign Language Course of the Kaisei Gakko of the First University District, the German School of the First University District (the former Second Middle School of that same District) and the Foreign Language Institute of the Department of Education (previously that same Institute of the Department of Foreign Affairs). Prior to this, in April and May of that same year, government foreign language schools were established respectively in Osaka and Nagasaki. These schools were firstly called the Kaimei Gakko (reorganized from the former First Middle School of the Third (earlier Fourth) University District) and the Koun Gakko (restructured from the former First Middle School of the Fifth (earlier Sixth) University District) and renamed in April, 1874, Osaka and Nagasaki Schools of Foreign Languages, respectively. Other government foreign language schools also were set up in Aichi, Hiroshima, Niigata and Miyagi in March, 1874, and in December of that year the English Course of Tokyo School of Foreign Languages became independent and known thereafter as Tokyo School of English. The other government foreign language schools mentioned above also came to be called "schools of English" at the same time. These government English language schools played an important role during the period of the Education System Order, but with the advent of the Satsuma Rebellion in 1877 and the resulting financial drain on the National Treasury, all but those in Tokyo and Osaka were closed.

During the same period that these foreign language schools were in operation there were also several government specialized schools outside the jurisdiction of the Department of Education. A particularly influential institution was the Engineering Grand School (Kobu Daigakko), which traced its origin to the Engineering Section (Kogakuryo) of the Department of Industry (Kobusho). Beginning in 1871 as the Engineering Section and in 1877 reorganized into the Engineering Grand School, it offered a course consisting of two years of preparatory work and four years of specialized study. The School enjoyed a high academic reputation and had a number of British consultants on its staff.

In the field of agriculture the Hokkaido Promotion Development Provisional School (Kaitakushi Karigakko) was founded in Tokyo in 1872 and with the development of Hokkaido, moved to Sapporo in 1875. It was renamed Sapporo School of Agriculture (Sapporo Nogakko) in the following year, and under the guidance of William S. Clark (1826-1886) became a specialized institution for the theory and practice of large-scale agricultural management. Clark had been invited to Japan from the United States to serve in the capacity of an educational consultant. The course at Sapporo School of Agriculture called for three years of preparatory work and four years of specialization based on a broad foundation in the natural sciences such as chemistry, mathematics and physics. Another agricultural institute was founded in 1874 in Tokyo by the Department of Home Affairs and named in 1877 Komaba School of Agriculture (Komaba Nogakko).

The study of law was promoted by the Law School of the Department of Justice, reorganized in 1875 from the former Meihoiryo beginning in 1871. This School emphasized the French legal codes and provided legal training of an especially high standard; on top of four years of preparatory work an additional four years of specialized training in law was required before graduation.