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In fiscal 1993, 11,462 elementary school pupils and 49,159 lower secondary school students were absent from school on 50 or more days because of an aversion to school. These are the highest totals since surveys were begun in fiscal 1966. Refusal to attend school is an extremely serious problem for the individuals concerned and a cause of great anguish for their families. It is also an area in which schools experience considerable difficulty. Naturally, the Ministry of Education, Science and Culture regards refusal to attend school as a priority educational issue.

In the past the causes of refusal to attend school were sought in the character of the individuals concerned. To find a solution, however, it is necessary to develop a new perception of this problem and to recognize that any child may refuse to attend school. Solution of the problem must be approached from various perspectives. Are the children concerned being treated appropriately, and are autonomy and independence being fostered through guidance activities by the entire school? Are efforts being made to build human relations in appropriate community environments? Is educational counseling being provided from children's perspective? Are schools making efforts to open themselves to parents and communities?

The Ministry of Education, Science and Culture supports efforts to return children who refuse to attend school to school life by commissioning prefectures and municipalities to implement adaptation assistance class programs. Under these programs the children concerned are brought together in education centers or other facilities to undergo individual counseling, participate in group activities, and receive instruction in various subjects. This approach has yielded considerable success. The number of organizations commissioned to administer these programs increased from 71 in fiscal 1993 to 82 in fiscal 1994. Other measures include the provision of in-service teacher training, the preparation and distribution of teacher's reference materials, and the operation of model programs to improve educational counseling.

In fiscal 1992 the number of dropouts from public and private upper secondary schools totaled 101,194, a decline of 10.4% from fiscal 1991. The overall percentage of dropouts also declined, from 2.1% of all students in fiscal 1991 to 1.9% in fiscal 1992. This is the lowest ratio since surveys were begun in fiscal 1982.

Reasons for dropping out vary from student to student. In many cases it appears that a complex mixture of factors is involved. As shown in Table II.3.1, the most frequent reason is "career-path change," which has been cited by an increasing number of students over the years. In more than 60% of cases in which "career-path change" is cited, the specific reason is the desire to enter the work force. The next most common reason is a wish to enter a different upper secondary school.

Measures to solve the dropout problem are closely related to the diversification, individualization, and increased flexibility of upper secondary education. The most important priority is to develop attractive schools in which students can study enthusiastically and with a sense of fulfillment. This task needs to be approached from a variety of angles. First, curricula must be structured so as to offer a wide range of learning opportunities that reflect students' abilities, aptitudes, interests, concerns, and career paths. Second, in-depth guidance must be provided in accordance with individual students' needs, including a thorough commitment to participatory and easily understood lessons that help students to gain a proper understanding of their scholastic work and experience a sense of achievement. Third, since grade repetition triggers many dropouts, more flexibility should be introduced in the grade promotion system. Fourth, a more open upper secondary school education structure must be developed, including systems that actively welcome dropouts who wish to return to upper secondary school.

This problem requires a comprehensive response as part of the reform of upper secondary education. Priorities in this context include the thorough implementation of the spirit of the new Course of Study for Upper Secondary Schools, as explained in part 1, as well as determined efforts to reform upper secondary school systems, including the introduction of the integrated course and the establishment of credit-based upper secondary schools.

In fiscal 1994 the Ministry of Education, Science and Culture initiated comprehensive research and surveys concerning the problem of upper secondary school dropouts. This program studies such aspects as the circumstances of dropouts while in school and at the time of dropping out and their subsequent careers, including employment. Activities include questionnaire and interview surveys of dropouts themselves.

Table II.3.1 Reasons Cited by Dropouts

In fiscal 1992 bullying occurred at 2,883 elementary schools (12% of the total), 3,440 lower secondary schools (33% of the total), and 982 upper secondary schools (24% of the total). Whereas the incidence of bullying is declining in elementary schools and upper secondary schools, it is increasing in lower secondary schools. The total number of cases, which had been diminishing consistently since surveys were begun in fiscal 1985, has begun to rise.

The incidence of school violence has been rising consistently in terms of both the number of cases and the number of schools affected. In fiscal 1992 there were cases at 1,293 lower secondary schools (12% of the total) and 590 upper secondary schools (14% of the total).

Bullying and school violence can never be tolerated in schools, which should foster consideration for others and a sense of justice. Teachers and all members of the school community must do everything possible to stamp out these problems.

The Ministry of Education, Science and Culture has traditionally presented its basic philosophy on student guidance through the compilation of teacher's reference materials, through notices, and through conferences. In fiscal 1994 the Ministry began to implement a program called Comprehensive Research and Surveys Concerning Problem Behavior in Schoolchildren. Activities under this program include nationwide questionnaire and interview surveys regarding bullying and school violence. Research findings will be used in the implementation of various countermeasures and in the improvement of efforts undertaken by schools and other organizations.

School rules, which exist under such names as "rules for students" or "requirements at school," are sets of rules that enable schoolchildren to enjoy healthy school lives and achieve better growth and development. They are formulated on the responsibility and at the discretion of individual schools.

Schools must ensure, however, that their school rules and guidance regarding those rules are appropriate to the schools' educational objectives. It is important to review rules constantly to ensure that they reflect students' actual circumstances and changing times. One effective approach to this task is to promote understanding of school rules by providing opportunities for students to think about rules for themselves, such as through class discussions and in student councils, and by fostering dialogue with parents and others about the roles of schools and families.

It is extremely unfortunate that children are still subjected to corporal punishment in schools. A variety of factors appear to be involved. Some teachers have the attitude that the use of force is sometimes necessary in response to problem behavior, such as school violence. Some also hold the simplistic view that a certain amount of corporal punishment is acceptable as a means of guidance. In addition, some parents regard the use of corporal punishment as a sign of teachers' enthusiasm.

Corporal punishment is strictly prohibited by law, and its use to chastise children is also unacceptable from the viewpoint of respect for children's human rights. Moreover, corporal punishment damages the relationship of trust between teachers and students. Overall, it is unlikely to produce any educational benefit. For a number of years the Ministry of Education, Science and Culture has been providing guidance about the prohibition of corporal punishment through notices, conferences, and other methods. Continued efforts will be made to ensure total observance of this requirement.