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Home > Policy > White Paper, Notice, Announcement > White Paper > JAPANESE GOVERMENT POLICICIES IN EDUCATION, SCIENCE AND CULTURE 1994 > PART I Chapter 3 1 1

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PART I New Directions in School Education
Chapter 3. Creating Upper Secondary Schools with Distinctive Characteristics
Section 1. Greater Emphasis on Individuality and Diversity in Upper Secondary Education
1. Reform of Upper Secondary Education: Background and Perspectives



(1) Current Trends and Issues in Upper Secondary Education

The present system of upper secondary education, established in 1948, expanded rapidly through Japan's high-growth era, driven by such ideals as equal opportunity for education and by strong public enthusiasm for education. The percentage of students of the relevant age entering upper secondary schools rose from about 40% initially to 50% in the mid-1950s, 70% in the mid-1960s, and over 90% in the mid-1970s. In fiscal 1994 the percentage stood at 96.5% ( Figure I.3.1 ).

Along with this quantitative expansion, students attending upper secondary schools have come to have great diversity in abilities, aptitudes, interests, concerns, and career paths. Until around 1970 approximately 60% of upper secondary school students enrolled in general courses, while specialized (vocational) courses accounted for about 40% of students. A sustained uptrend in the university entrance ratio, however, has been reflected in an increase in the percentage of students enrolled in general courses, currently approximately 74%, compared with about 24% enrolled in specialized courses ( Figure I.3.2 ).

A number of issues concerning the current situation of upper secondary schools were highlighted in the April 1991 report of the Central Council for Education titled "Reforms of Various Educational Systems to Adapt Them to a New Age." For example, most general courses are geared toward university entrance and thus tend to be uniform in curriculum structure and implementation, with the result that there is insufficient provision for the diverse characteristics of students, including their abilities and aptitudes. In addition, approximately 19% of graduates of general courses enter the work force upon graduation, yet there is virtually no preparation for employment at even the most basic level. Similarly, because specialized courses are targeted at students who are expected to enter the work force upon graduation, insufficient provision is made for the increasing number of students in these courses who decide that they wish to advance to university. Moreover, there has been no basic change in course categories or content since the establishment of the postwar upper secondary education system, with the result that courses have not kept pace with changes in industrial and employment structures. Furthermore, the tempo of change has become extremely rapid in recent years owing to internationalization, the shift to an information-oriented society, and technological innovation in various fields. Vocational education at the upper secondary school level must be adapted to these changes.

Other problems that have been highlighted include the tendency to evaluate upper secondary schools primarily in terms of the number of students admitted to institutions of higher education and the heavy emphasis on standard score in career guidance at the transition from lower to upper secondary schools, both of which are closely linked to the issue of school rankings and the perception of school rankings, as pointed out in chapter 1, section 1. There is concern that the resulting excessive competition in entrance examinations not only has an adverse impact on students' physical and mental health but also makes it difficult for young people to enjoy spiritually rich lives and accumulate healthy adolescent experiences during their lower secondary education, which should be a time for establishing a sense of self.

There has also been criticism that this environment of uniformity and excessive entrance examination competition leads to other problems. For example, involuntary enrollment of students in upper secondary schools can lead to dissatisfaction and destroy their motivation to learn. An additional area of concern is the dropout phenomenon. These problems have been attributed to a number of factors, including excessive reliance on standard score in career guidance, failure to take the interests, abilities, and aptitudes of students sufficiently into account when providing career guidance, and lack of adequate arrangements for school transfers, course changes, and readmission under the present upper secondary education system.

Figure I.3.1 Trends in Advancement Rates to Upper Secondary School

Figure I.3.2 Trends in Student Composition by Type of Course


(2) Changes in the Upper Secondary School Student Population

One issue that could not be ignored in relation to upper secondary education until recently was the rapid growth of the upper secondary school age cohort. The construction of new upper secondary schools, particularly in the general education category, became a priority in every prefecture. This trend had serious educational and financial implications.

Today, however, the second baby boom has ended. The student population peaked in fiscal 1989 and is now shrinking ( Figure I.3.3 ). This situation has provided an excellent opportunity for a shift in emphasis from quantity to quality in upper secondary education. Under the Fifth Improvement Plan on Public Upper Secondary School Class Composition and Teaching Staff Deployment, which covers a six-year period from fiscal 1993 to fiscal 1998, staffing surpluses created by the decline in the student population are being used to reduce the standard class size in general and other courses at the upper secondary school level from 45 to 40 and to improve the level of teaching staff in order to achieve greater diversity in upper secondary education, including the provision of a wider range of options through the creation of diverse subject areas and subjects that reflect students' individual characteristics and interests. Further efforts will be needed to enhance conditions for the qualitative improvement of upper secondary education, however.

Figure I.3.3 Trends in Numbers of Upper Secondary Students and Schools


(3) Perspectives for Reform of Upper Secondary Education

What kinds of reforms are needed to overcome the problems discussed above and enable upper secondary education to meet expectations in terms of the development of young people? The fourteenth Central Council for Education was established to address this question. In its report of April 1991 it made the following recommendations about perspectives for the reform of upper secondary education.

1. Instead of the quantitative expansion of the past, efforts should now focus on qualitative enhancement to allow a careful response to students' individual characteristics.
2. A system should be established to enable students to choose from among a wide range of schools, courses, and subjects meeting their individual needs in order to correct the tendency to employ uniform approaches to educational content and guidance methods despite the diversity in students' abilities and aptitudes.
3. Steps must be taken to alleviate excessive competition in entrance examinations, such as by diversifying entrant selection criteria. Through changes in this area, efforts should be made to liberate students from the psychological pressure of entrance examination competition and excessive reliance on standard score and to strive for education based on respect for individuality and humanity. As will be discussed below, the reform of upper secondary education is being guided by these perspectives and implemented primarily through measures proposed in the report.

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