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PART Issues and Perspectives ofHigher Education

Educational programs in universities differ among different countries. In universities and colleges in the United States, general education is provided at the undergraduate level and professional education is offered at the postgraduate level, while in the United Kingdom, France and West Germany, emphasis in undergraduate programs is placed on theoretically-oriented specialized education. In Japanese universities, general and specialized education is to be provided on an integral basis at the undergraduate level. This pattern seems to stand between American and West European models. Universities in the U.S.S.R., which are responsible for the development of professional manpower in accordance with national plans, carry out specialized education closely connected with specific professions.

Most university students in all these countries are absorbed in their studies. In many of these countries universities provide students with small-group classroom lessons to give students a lot of assignments and to devote careful attention to the needs and interests of individuals. In many countries, universities strictly conduct final examinations at the end of a course. On the other hand, students usually commit themselves to their studies with a relatively clear sense of purpose.

However, there are some negative phenomena. In the United States it has been pointed out that many students drop out because of academic failure. The Federal Government is considering conducting a nation-wide survey so as to ascertain the real state of affairs regarding this phenomenon. In France, more than a half of all university entrants drop out before they complete the first two-year course. In West Germany, a survey reveals that about 20% of university entrants drop out before they sit for the final examination. These facts indicate that university authorities in these countries are very keen to keep the quality of education at a high level.

In the United Kingdom and France, postgraduate education is theoretically oriented and emphasis is placed on the function of developing researchers. While postgraduate education in the United States has an important function of developing highly qualified professional workers, in addition to researchers. In these countries graduate schools are of a relatively large size and are carrying out a significant social function with regard to both educational and research activities. Graduate schools in the United States and the United Kingdom are characterized by the fact hat they enroll a substantial number of working adults on a part-time basis. The number of part5time students accounts for more than 50% (in the U.S.) and about40% (in the U.K.) of all graduate school students. Graduate schools in the two countries have been responding to the practical needs of these part-time students by providing them with an opportunity to acquire and refresh professional knowledge and techniques.

The teaching staff has an important role to play in maintaining and improving the quality of educational and research programs, In the United States. Lecturers and assistant professors are employed for a limited term of office, before they are appointed either associate professors or professors with tenure; they are subject to a screening for their teaching capacity, research output and other elements. In the United Kingdom until recently, university staff members with a position of senior lecturer or above had been usually granted tenure (while staff members with a position of junior lecturer or below had had a limited term of office), It has been prescribed by law that tenure is restricted for all university teachers appointed or promoted in and after 1987 and that they can be dismissed for financial reasons. In universities in West Germany, teachers are recruited by public advertisement, and the promotion of a teacher to a senior rank within the same university is prohibited. In the U.S.S.R., all university teachers have a five-year term of office. Every five years they are subject to a screening for reappointment. They may be dismissed as a result of the screening.