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PART lssues and Perspectives of Elementaryand Secondary Education

Equality of educational opportunity implies not only the guarantee of an opportunity for everybody to receive school education but also the guarantee of standardized education. In other words, the mission of public school education consists in the maintenance of a nationally acceptable educational standard and the provision of opportunities for everybody to receive school education of a standardized high quality wherever one lives in the country.

To this end, the government has so far improved the curriculum, implemented textbook authorization, improved teachers' salaries and fixed numbers of educational personnel and developed school facilities. These measures, being accompanied by strong education orientation among people at large, have contributed to maintaining a relatively high standard of education. The IEA (the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement) Mathematics Study and Science Study, for example, have proven, as shown in the tables, that the achievements of pupils of our country were above the international average of those countries surveyed. The results, although not conclusive, are at least one indication of the success of school education in our country.

An overview of policies for the maintenance and improvement of educational standards after the end of World War is presented below.

Table -1-1 Results of the IEA Mathematics Study and Science Study

As regards the standard for curriculum before the end of World War II, the objectives of schools, kinds of subjects, etc. were regulated by various school ordinances and regulations, and national textbooks were compiled in accordance with them. School education was conducted on the basis of these national textbooks.

After the war, the system of curriculum was fundamentally reformed. The government set up the Course of Study as the standard for curriculum in accordance with which the organization and practice of the curriculum would be conducted by each school. This change was introduced in view of the criticism that under the pre-war system state control of curriculum had become too strong with national textbooks and other measures, and thus made it difficult to develop educational activities suitable for the local and school situation and fit for individual students.

Table -1-2 Transition of Subjects in Elementary Schools

In the determination of the Course of Study, two principles that follow were important, while paying enough attention to the unique situation of each school and the balance between these principles and the unique situation of each school.

First is the guarantee of a certain educational level nationwide, in order to have all the citizens have equal access to an equal quality of education and to have them all embody a basic and fundamental body of knowledge which will be necessary for every citizen.

Second is the need for creativity and initiative of teachers and schools in the development and implementation of curriculum, in the light of the intrinsic importance of conducting education relative to local and school conditions and the age and characteristics of each pupil and also of the need to make educational activities effective at each school.

The Course of Study was first set up in 1947, and has been revised roughly every ten years on the basis of the experiences with earlier versions of the Course of Study, in order to respond to the changing needs of the times. In terms of major changes, the following three stages are identified.

* The Course of Study of the late 1940's and the ealy l950's The Course of Study was issued in 1947 for the first time. It was compiled under the direction of the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers who held the responsibility for the Occupation, and took its model from the Course of Study adopted by various states in the United States. Pressed by the need to provide a standard for curriculum for the new educational system, it was prepared in a short period of time to be in time for the inauguration of the new system.

The 1947 version was voluminous with more than two thousand pages, which consisted of the general part and the part of respective subjects for elementary and lower secondary schools. This stage was characterized by the abolition of "morals", "Japanese history" and "geography" replaced with the introduction of a new subject, "social studies", the introduction of "homemaking" in elementary schools as a subject to be studied by both male and female pupils, and the emphasis on experiences in life throughout all the subjects.

The 1947 version was revised in 1951, because it included various inconsistencies in content caused by the rushed manner of drafting when it was compiled. The idea behind these two versions, however, was consistent. Although these two Courses of Study had a legal status as the standard for curriculum, they were issued as a "provisional" one, as they were prepared in a rushed manner in the confusing situation of the post-war period.

* The Course of Study of the late l950's and l96O's

After the implementation of the revised 1951 version, which emphasized the unit method of learning based on pupils' experiences in life across the subjects and which allowed different amounts of teaching hours by regions, the imbalance in academic achievement among different parts of the nation became evident. The situation of the nation at around 1955, moreover, was consolidating its existence in the international arena as an independent nation, and technological innovations and high economic growth were about to take off.

The revision of 1958 (1960 for upper secondary schools) was imbued with a tone of the recovery of the nation's independence. The strengthening of moral education, the emphasis on basic academic ability, and the promotion of scientific and technological education, all of which had been considered as important issues, featured this revised guidelines. In this revision emphasis was sifted from the unit method of learning based on pupils' experiences in life to systematic learning of subjects.

After the 1958~1960 revision, our country witnessed remarkable developments and changes in the standard or living, culture and society. With the improvement of Japan's international status, its role in the international arena also grew larger. Thus another revision was made in 1968~1970 to further improve educational content, to meet the needs of the times, to be appropriate to the levels of development, abilities and adaptability of pupils and to reflect each particular school situation. From such a view point, in mathematics, for examp1e, "modernization" of curriculum was promoted by introducing such a concept as "sets". The 1968~1970 revision, however, basically followed the ways of thinking of the 1958~1960 revision.

In this revision, it was made clear that the Minister of Education, Science and Culture issues the Course of Study of a general nature as the standard for curriculum, This does not mean the nature and the legal status of the Course of Study were thereby changed, but simply clarified.

* The Course of Study of the l98O's and 1989

The revision of the late 1950's and the l960's attempted the enrichment of educational content in order to respond to the development of science, industry and culture after the recovery of independence, leading to require an increased amount of and an excessively upgraded level of learning. Thus education from the viewpoint of learners came to be taken up as an important issue ; humanizing education was thus brought into the discussion. It also emerged as an issue how to cope with widely diffused upper secondary education.

The 1977-78 revision, therefore, placed the focus of educational goals on encouraging pupils to develop independent judgement and behavior and correcting the overemphasis on the transmission of ready-made knowledge. Thus, in this version, educational content was carefully selected and school hours were much reduced, in order that a flexible and rich school life might be realized.

Since then, the development of information oriented society and internationalization has given much influence on the consciousness and life style of pupils. Social changes in these sectors are expected to expand and accelerate. The issue then shall be how education can keep up with these changes.

The 1989 revision, therefore, aimed at nurturing a well-rounded personality able to cope with the changes of society and thus forming a basis for lifelong learning. Key points of the revision were (1) the nurturing of a flexible and well-rounded personality, (2) the nurturing of competency for independent learning, (3) an emphasis on the basics and the promotion of education for developing individual traits, and (4) the appreciation of cultural traditions and the promotion of international understanding. It is noted that the 1989 revision covered, for the first time, simultaneously all the levels of education from kindergarten through upper secondary school.

The Course of Study has contributed substantially to the improvement of educational standard in our country, through several revisions which made it updated to the development of society.

An Excerpt from the Course of Study for Elementary Schools (revised in 1977)

Section 3 Arithmetic

. OVERALL OBJECTIVES

To have pupils acquire the fundamental knowledge and skills regarding numbers, quantities and geometrical figures, and develop their ability and attitude toward dealing with those matters in daily life which demand logicality and rigorous thinking.

. OBJECTIVES AND CONTENTS FOR EACH GRADE

First Grade

1. Objectives

(1) To help pupils understand the concept and notation of number by dealing with concrete object, and to help them use addition and subtraction In simple cases.

(2) To help pupils understand the basic concepts of quantity and measurement by dealing with concrete objects.

(3) To help pupils enrich their experiences for understanding the basic concepts of geometrical figures and space through concrete manipulations.

2. Contents

A. Numbers and Calculation

1) To enable pupils to express correctly the number and order of objects using numbers, and through these activities, to help them understand the concept of number.

a. To compare the numbers of objects by an operation such as correspondence.

b. To count or express correctly the number and order of objects.

c. To know the size and order of numbers, to make a sequence of them and to express them on a number line.

d. To consider a number in relation to other numbers by taking the sum or difference of them.

e. To know the meaning of a place value in 2-digit numbers.

2) To get pupils to understand addition and subtraction of numbers, and to enable them to use these calculations.

a. To know the cases in which addition and subtraction are applied.

b. To develop the skill of addition of 1-digit numbers, and the skill of subtraction as its inverse operation.

c. To know that addition and subtraction are applied, in simple cases, to 2-digit numbers as well as to 1-digit numbers.

3) To enable pupils to classify and express concrete objects by counting them efficiently, dividing them into equal parts, etc.

B. Quantities and Measurement

1) To help pupils understand the basic concepts of length, area and volume, and their measurement through such activities as comparing their sizes.

2) To enable pupils to represent time in simple cases.

C. Geometrical Figures

1) To help pupils enrich their experiences for understanding the basic concepts of geometrical figures and space through such manipulative activities as observing the shapes of concrete objects and constructing them.

a. To recognize the shapes of objects, and to grasp the features of them.

b. To construct various shapes and divide them into more basic shapes.

c. To pay attention gradually to the operations needed for the consideration of geometrical figures.

d. To express the position of an object by the correct use of such words concerning directions and positions as "before and behind", "right and left" or "top and bottom".

Terms and Symbols

the number of units, the number of tens, +, -, =.

2) Post-war Textbook Administration

The government textbook system had been adopted for elementary schools since 1904 and for secondary schools since 1944. Before the end of World War II, one could have said, textbooks were almost synonymous with curriculum.

After the war, curriculum and textbooks are separated ; on the one hand, the government issues the Course of Study as the standard for curriculum on the basis of which each school organizes an appropriate curriculum, and on the other hand, textbooks are defined not to be the curriculum itself but to form an important part of teaching materials arranged in accordance with the organization of the curriculum. A textbook authorization system has replaced the government textbook system.

The textbook authorization system was institutionalized by the enactment of the School Education Law in 1947. The system aims at encouraging private initiatives in the creation of a variety of textbooks by letting the private sector engage in the compilation and publication of textbooks, and at the same time tries to meet the demand to maintain an educational standard all over the nation, appropriateness in educational content and political neutrality in education, through the examination of draft textbooks by the Minister of Education, Science and Culture in the light of the objectives and content of each subject as stipulated by the Course of Study, etc.

In 1948, the Law Concerning Provisional Measures on the Publication of Textbook was enacted. It was instrumental in setting up a system to ensure speedy publication and distribution of textbooks. The law also enabled the government to grasp the number of copies needed for respective textbooks through textbook fairs organized throughout the country and instruct publishers to produce textbooks accordingly as well as to give authorization to the prices for textbooks so as to maintain appropriate prices for textbooks.

Furthermore, the Law Concerning Free Provision of Textbooks in Compulsory Education Schools enacted in 1962 realized free provision of textbooks. At the same time, the Law Concerning Measures for Free Provision of Textbooks in Compulsory Education Schools was enacted, which established a new system of adoption and publication of textbooks. This law also authorized the Minister of Education, Science and Culture to designate publishers of textbooks as well as to define a city/county or a group of cities / counties as an area for the adoption of textbooks so that a single textbook be adopted within the area for each subject.

The textbook authorization system was totally reviewed in 1989, in response to a recommendation from the National Council on Educational Reform, toward simplified examination process and a smaller number of carefully selected criteria for the authorization, so as to activate private initiatives and their editorial service and to lead to variety of textbooks.

Textbooks have played an important role in the upgrading of educational standards in post-war Japan under the system described above.

Table -1-3 Number of Kinds of Textbook (1989)

In order to maintain and upgrade the standard of school education, a most important endeavor is to develop and secure excellent teachers and ensure a continuous improvement in their quality. Various policy initiatives have been undertaken and have resulted in substantial achievements.

Positive policies have been undertaken in order to secure teachers after World War . At public elementary and lower secondary schools, for example, the number of pupils per full-time teacher has been declining thanks to several revisions of class size standard and planned increase of educational personnel fixed number. At public elementary schools, in 1948, there were 38.2 pupils per teacher, but, in 1988,there war 22.2 At public lower secondary schools, in 1948, there were 27.8 students, but, in 1988. there were 20.4.

Post-war policies for the training and securing of teachers will be described below.

Teacher training before World War was undertaken primarily by normal schools. After the war, however. the enactment of the Educational Personnel Certification Law of 1949 initiated a new system which awards teacher's certificates of respective kinds not only to the graduates of teacher training colleges and departments, but also to those of any other universities, provided that they have accumulated enough credits. Teacher training colleges and other universities are both contributing to teacher education in their respective ways. The shortage of teachers was very serious soon after World War . As the solving of this problem was urgent, two-year short courses were set up in teacher training colleges and departments, and provisional teacher training institutes were authorized to the established in prefectures in order to meet the pressing need for teachers. Moreover, starting in 1950, the government promoted in-service training programs systematically in order to upgrade the quality and qualification of the 590,000 teachers then employed. Even after the programs were completed, in the late l950's and onwards, in-service training programs were positively promoted. The government conducted programs for principals and senior teachers, and also provided subsidies for in-service training programs of teachers organized by prefectures. In 1989, a new system of induction training of one year for beginning teachers was introduced.

After World War , the improvement of working conditions of teachers and the establishment of their status were most urgent problems. In view of the special obligations and responsibilities of civil servants who serve the public through teaching, in 1949, the Law for Special Regulations Concerning Educational Public Service Personnel was enacted, which stipulated different treatments of teachers in contrast to the national and local government employees who had been and would continue to be covered by the National Public Service Personnel Law and the forthcoming Local Public Service Law respectively. By virtue of this law, teachers of public schools came to be defined as having the status of local government employees and at the same time be treated differently from other local government employees in terms of the limitation of political activities, the method of employment and promotion.

By virtue of the Law Governing the Share of Salaries of Municipal School Personnel enacted in 1948, salaries of educational personnel of those schools established by municipalities came to be borne by the respective prefectures. While after the war personnel matters of municipal schools were originally taken care of by the respective municipalities, the Law Concerning Orgainzation and Functions of Local Education Administration enacted in 1956 provided prefectural boards of education with the authority of appointing educational personnel for whom salaries are paid by prefectures after having recommendations of the respective municipal boards of education.

In 1952, the Law Concerning the National Treasury's Share of Compulsory Education Expenses was revived, and fifty per cent of salaries of teachers engaged in compulsory education came to be paid by the government. Today, the disbursement from the national treasury to cover the cost of compulsory education amounts to \2,500 billion, accounting for more than fifty percent of the total budget of the Ministry of Education, Science and Culture.

In order to secure excellent teachers by offering better remuneration for teachers than that for other general personnel in public service, the Law Concerning Special Measures for Securing Capable Educational Personnel in Compulsory Education Schools with the Aim of Maintaining and Improving the Level of School Education was enacted in 1974. It upgraded teachers' basic salaries, and provided special allowance for compulsory and other education school teachers, allowance for co-ordination and advice on teaching affairs (chief teachers' allowance) and that for special service (club activities allowance).

The Compulsory Education Standard Law and the Upper Secondary School Standard Law were enacted in 1958 and 1961 respectively, so as to set up standards for class size and fixed numbers of educational personnel, and several improvement plans have since then been implemented. Today the Fifth Improvement Plan(198O-l991) for Compulsory Education is being promoted which emphasizes the realization of classroom of less than 40 pupils, the increase of teachers for single subject at elementary schools, and the solving of the problem of teachers teaching non-qualified subjects at small scale lower secondary schools. Also the Fourth Improvement Plan (1980-1991) for Upper Secondary Schools is being promoted,which emphasizes the increase of teachers in charge of vocational education and the additional allotment of teachers for organizing classes by academic achievement levels.

In addition, the role of vice-principals was legally clarified in 1974 and a system of chief teachers was introduced in 1976. Necessary improvements in the area of school management has been steadily implemented.

Chart -1-9 Trends in Pupil-Fulltime Teacher Ratio

School facilities are a major factor in the growth and development of pupils and in the provision of school education. They are important because they provide not only the location for education, but an environment which fosters rich personality in pupils.

Shortage of school facilities after the war was serious and financial resources for their construction were severely limited, although a meager governmental subsidy was provided in the early years. In 1953 soon after the recovery of independence, subsidies for school facilities were given legal authorization for the first time, and then in 1958, various laws relating to subsidies for school facilities were unified. Since then the improvement of facilities has systematically been promoted.

The improvement of school facilities has thus far been concerned primarily with quantitative aspects, such as the rapid increase in classrooms for a growing number of pupils and the reconstruction of dangerous wooden structures. Replacement of old buildings with new ones with iron reinforcing rods has been almost completed and compulsory school age population has now begun to decline. The situation is ripe now for building facilities with quality.

The Ministry of Education, Science and Culture has conducted research on the development of cultural atomosphere in school facilities with a view to developing cultural environment of education for cultivating creativity and humanity in pupils. It has also conducted a comprehensive study concerning school facilities, including facilities contributing to the promotion of pupils' individual traits, and executed necessary improvement of the subsidy system. Subsequently, in recent years, school buildings have developed in a number of respects, such as multi-purpose space, seminar house, club house, and improved outdoor area. Consideration is also given to the well-deviced space design of building, exhibition of art objects and decoration of buildings, etc. Moreover, research is being conducted on the impact of an "intelligent building concept" on school facilities, in response to recommendations from the National Council on Educational Reform on a movement toward intelligent schools.