（7）Student Movements

The first real activity on the part of the Zengakuren (National Federation of Students' Self-government Associations)in the period after 1952 began in response to the government's decision in 1955 to raise tuition fees at national universities. The Zengakuren gained renewed strength through its opposition to this move, and entered into a period of vigorous political activity. During the national debate in 1960 over the revision of the Japan - U.S. Security Treaty, the Zengakuren broke away from the joint struggle being waged by various leftist organizations and loosed its forces in violent street demonstrations culminating in clashes around the Diet Building in June, 1960.The unity which the Zengakuren members displayed during this period began to break up under the pressures of sectarian rivalry in the early 1960s. By late 1964 a faction known as the Minsei (Democratic Youth League of Japan) regrouped and under the banner of "daily struggle" attempted to extend its influence over the splintered organization. In opposition to the Minsei faction, three other radical sects united into the so-called Sanpa Zengakuren (Zengakuren of the Three Main Sects) toward the end of 1966. The remains of the administrative structure of the original Zengakuren was by this time organized into the Kakumaru (Revolutionary Marxist) Party. Of these, the Sanpa Zengakuren took the most radicals and on political issues and particularly after the first and second Haneda Incidents in 1967 conducted violent armed street struggles. A notable instance was the demonstration in1969 protesting the Prime Minister's visit to the United States, during which considerable damage was done to transport facilities and private property.

The Minsei faction, on the other hand, had focused on problems within the universities. During the late sixties various anti-Minsei groups rose in opposition to its expanding influence. Struggles within the universities broke out first at Waseda  University in January, 1966, over increases in tuition fees and  the administration of the student hall. This was followed by  conflicts at Meiji University and Chuo University. These disturbances grew to the point where university buildings were  occupied and entrances blockaded, bringing the schools to a  virtual halt. Protests of January, 1968, over the training pro-gram at the Faculty of Medicine at Tokyo University soon  spread throughout that University. Riot police were mobilized  in January, 1969, to clear Yasuda Hall, which had been occupied for several days by radical students, resulting in a fierce  confrontation between students and police. However, the campus disruptions continued, forcing cancellation of the entrance  examination to that University for the 1969 academic year. At  Nihon University as well, blockades and the occupation of cam-pus buildings over the issue of democratization of that University continued for nearly a year.

The troubles that shook the universities from 1968 to 1969,as symbolized by the events of Tokyo and Nihon Universities,  spread across the country and involved both political issues and  a rash of university-related problems - student participation,  management of student dormitories and student halls, reorganization of the medical training program, democratization of the  campuses, and other reforms. 67 campuses were disrupted in the1968 academic year and during the 1969 academic year this  number grew to 127. At length, due to the combined efforts of  persons both inside and outside the university system, the  disruptions began to subside following the enactment of the  Law concerning Emergency Measures on the Operation of  Universities, which was promulgated on August 7, 1969, and  put in force on August 17 of that year.