b. The 1897 Normal Education Order and the Expansion of Normal Education

On October 9, 1897, the 1897 Normal Education Order was promulgated, which came into force on April 1, 1898, replacing the Normal School Order. At the same time the Order concerning Normal School Student Quotas was also promulgated on October 9, 1897, and put in force on April 1, 1898. According to the 1897 Normal Education Order, normal education was to be organized in terms of one higher normal school, one women's higher normal school, and normal schools. (The former ordinary normal schools were renamed the "normal schools" by this Order.) Moreover, the three elements of "character" specified in Article 1 of the Normal School Order were revised to be elements of "virtue." One higher normal school and one women's higher normal school were to be established in Tokyo, and one or more normal schools for each prefecture. According to the Order concerning Normal School Student Quotas, it was specified that "sufficient normal school students must be recruited each year so that there will be at least one normal school graduate for every twenty elementary school classes, and for this purpose the number of classes can be estimated by dividing two-thirds of the population of the school-age children by seventy." In other words the number of normal school students was calculated relative to the number of school age children. Based on this measure, normal schools expanded rapidly. Following the promulgation of the 1897 Normal Education Order and earlier than its enforcement, instructions (kunrei) were issued in December, 1897, according to which, "In the case of the establishment of two or more ordinary normal schools, when it is recognized that there is a sufficient number of girls' students for one school, boys and girls shall be separated into different schools;" hence independent girls' normal schools were gradually established. (The expansion of the normal schools is indicated in Table 3-3.) In addition, according to Article 7 of the 1897 Normal Education Order, students paying their own way were recognized where previously normal school education had been free and all graduates were expected to work as teachers to repay the costs of their education. Moreover, to train new teachers so as to accommodate the trend of expansion in normal schools, middle schools, and girls' high schools, in April, 1902, Hiroshima Higher Normal School and in April, 1908, Nara Women's Higher Normal School were founded. (At the time of the establishment of these new schools the Higher Normal School and the Women's Higher Normal School were renamed Tokyo Higher Normal School and Tokyo Women's Higher Normal School, respectively.)

Table 3-3. Trends in the Number of Normal Schools and Normal School Graduates

Table 3-3. Trends in the Number of Normal Schools and Normal School Graduates

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