The model for Japanese education in the perspective of the 21st Century
(2nd Report)
June 26th, 1997
Central Council for Education
The model for Japanese education in the perspective of the 21st Century
The 2nd Report by the Central Council for Education
Introduction 1
Chapter 1 The model for education which responds to individual abilities
and aptitudes 3
(1) The necessity of and basic way of thinking about education which
responds to individual abilities and aptitudes 3
(2) Shifting from valuing formal equality in education to respecting
individuality 5
-Improving articulation between different levels of schooling
Chapter 2 Improving selection methods for entry to upper secondary schools
and universities 7
Section 1 The excessive state of exam competition 7
SectionQImproving selection methods for entry to universities 9
(1) The current state of selection methods for entry to universities,
and effort toward various improvements until now 9
-Changing university entrance examinations
(2) The fundamental direction of improvement in selection methods for
entry to universities 10
(i) The environment surrounding higher education and topics in selection
methods for entry to universities (ii)The direction of improvement in
selection methods for entry to universities in various foreign countries
(iii)The organization of higher education and the model for the system
(iv)The fundamental direction of improvement
(3) Concrete measures for improvement in selection methods for entry
to universities 14
(A) The model for improving selection methods for entry to universities
14
(i) Moving further toward diversification of selection methods and assessment
criteria from overvaluing of academic examinations in selection for
entry to universities (ii)Expansion in opportunities to take examinations
(iii)Improvement in selection methods for entry to university that respects
the direction of reforms in primary and secondary education (iv)Improvement
of admission on recommendation (v)The model for NCUEE examinations and
individual examinations
(B) The promotion of measures relating to laying the groundwork for
advancing improvement in selection methods 21
(i) Organizing admission offices (ii) Ensuring an unhurried admission
examination schedule (iii)Improvement of career guidance and rounding
out of the provision of information pertaining to universities (iv)Outside
evaluations relating to the selection methods for entry to universities
(v)Strengthening the functions of the NCUEE and coordination between
universities and upper secondary schools
(C) Moving to a more flexible system of higher education overall 24
(i) Moving to a more flexible system of higher education overall (ii)Making
university education more substantial and evaluating academic performance
more rigorously
Section 3 Improving selection methods for entry to upper secondary schools
26
(1) The current state of selection methods for entry to upper secondary
schools, and effort toward various improvements until now 26
-Changing upper secondary school entrance examinations
(2) The fundamental direction of improvement in selection methods for
entry to upper secondary schools 26
(i) Increasing the percentage of students proceeding to upper secondary
schools, and topics in selection methods for entry to upper secondary
school (ii)The fundamental direction of improvement
(3) Concrete measures for improvement in selection methods for entry
to upper secondary schools, 28
(A) The model for improving selection methods for entry to upper secondary
schools 28
(i) Measures for making the hurdles between lower and upper secondary
school lower (ii)Diversification of selection methods and using diversified
assessment criteria (iii)Improvements in selection methods that respect
the direction of improvement at the lower secondary school level and
below (iv)Improvement of admission on recommendation
(B) The promotion of measures relating to laying the groundwork for
advancing improvement in selection methods 32
(i)Organizing a system of coordination between lower and upper secondary
schools (ii)Improvement in career guidance and rounding out of the system
of information provision pertaining to schools and entrance examinations
(C) Realizing a varied and flexible system of upper secondary education
33
(i) Diversification of upper secondary education (ii)Moving to a more
flexible system of upper secondary education
Section 4 The problem of a society preoccupied with academic credentials
34
Chapter 3 Unified Secondary Education 37
(1) The significance of unified secondary education and its selective
introduction 37
(i) The significance and distinctive characteristics of unified secondary
education (ii) The selective introduction of unified secondary education
(2) The concrete model for the selective introduction of unified secondary
education 40
(i) The actual form of unified secondary education (ii)Educational content
(iii)The development of distinctive education with unified secondary
education (iv)Selection methods for determining entrants (v)Consideration
for school entrance and leaving at the time of moving up to the upper
secondary school level
Chapter 4 Exceptional Educational Measures 47
(1) Various measures for an education which responds to individual abilities
and aptitudes and consideration for children who are behind in learning
47
(2) Providing more substantial and varied educational opportunities
for students with exceptional abilities or desires in specified areas
49
(3) Exceptions to the university admission age 50
(i) Basic way of thinking (ii)Fields covered (iii)Persons covered (iv)Selection
methods (v)The prerogatives of the accepting university and the handling
of entrants after entry (vi)Concrete methods of implementation (vii)Concerning
the skipping of grades
Chapter 5 The model for education in response to an aging society 56
(1) The prospects for an aging society and the basic way of thinking
about education which responds to an aging society 56
(i) The prospects for an aging society (ii)The basic way of thinking
about education which responds to an aging society
(2) Approaches in schools 58
(i)Improvements in educational content and methods (ii)Arranging the
conditions required for education
(3) Approaches in the home and the community 61
Conclusion 64
[Reference materials]
1 Document of Inquiry 67
2 Explanation of Reasons for Inquiry (Minister of Education, Science,
Sports and Culture) 69
3 Supplementary Explanation (Administrative Vice Minister of Education,
Science, Sports and Culture) 71
4 Progress of Discussions (General Meeting, 1st Sub-Committee, 2nd Sub-Committee)
73
5 List of Ordinary Members and Specialist Members 77
[Summary and Outline of Report]
1 Summary of the Central Council for Education's 2nd Report 81
2 Outline of the Central Council for Education's 2nd Report 84
The model for Japanese education in the perspective of the 21st Century
(The 2nd Report by the Central Council for Education)
Introduction
1 In April 1995, the Central Council for Education was instructed by
the Minister of Education, Science, Sports and Culture to deliberate
on "The model for Japanese education in the perspective of the
21st century". At that time, the following three topics were set
out as the main subjects for the Council's deliberations.
(i)The model for school education in the future as well as the future
roles of schools, families and communities and liaison between these
three.
(ii) Education suited to individual abilities and aptitudes as well
as improvements in articulation between different levels of schooling.
(iii) The model for education in response to such social changes as
internationalization, the growth of an information-oriented society
and the development of science and technology.
Firstly, the central council held continuing, concrete deliberations
centering on (i) and (iii) of the above in general meetings and in both
1st and 2nd sub-committees, and subsequent to a public presentation
of "Summary of Deliberations", in July 1996, the 1st report
was concluded. This report, based on cultivating "zest for living"
in children amid "room to grow", made various proposals on
making a strict selection of schools' educational contents and enriching
education in the home and the community, the full introduction of the
comprehensive 5-day school week early in the 21st century, and aiming
to improve school education to respond to social changes.
2 After the presentation of the 1st report, the central council, starting
in September 1996, held continuing deliberations centering on (ii) above
but also on (iii). In November of the same year, the sub-committees
were reopened, and thereafter in general meetings and in both 1st and
2nd sub-committees, concretely advanced deliberations on the topics
of improving selection methods for entry to upper secondary schools
and universities, unified secondary education, exceptional educational
measures, and the model for education in response to an aging society.
During this time, through the general meetings and sub-committees, hearings
with related bodies and individuals were held, and continuing the work
of two years earlier, over a period from September to November 1996,
proposals on the topic "Suggestions for the desirable model for
education in the perspective of the 21st century" were appealed
for, and a "One-day Open Session of the Central Council" was
held in November 1996 as well; through these and other methods, efforts
were made to lend an ear to as many different opinions as possible.
In April 1997 the 15th Council completed its work, and the 16th Council
was inaugurated to continue this work and advance debate from even wider
perspectives, leading to the public presentation on May 30th of "Summary
of Deliberations" (Part 2). After the public presentation of "Summary
of Deliberations" (Part 2), taking into consideration opinions
from all directions, in general meetings deliberations were further
deepened. Through deliberations of this nature, the central council
has at this point concluded its 2nd report.
3 We members of the council, having undergone deliberation, have given
particular consideration as individual adults, to how the healthy development
of children can be ensured in the context of families, schools and communities,
and at the same time to adopt the perspective of children. Taking into
accounting the aim of the 1st report, and considering how to encourage
"zest for living" amid "room to grow", based on
a basic way of thinking that respects individuality, debate was advanced
from the point of view of how to develop an education which responds
to individual abilities and aptitudes.
This 2nd report in chapter 1 seeks to present the necessity of valuing
an education which responds to individual abilities and aptitudes while
aiming to cultivate in children "zest for living" amid "room
to grow". Moreover, based on the awareness of the necessity of
aiming to improve the articulation between different levels of schooling
in order to realize an education which responds to individual abilities
and aptitudes, chapters 2, 3 and 4 discuss improving selection methods
for entry to upper secondary schools and universities, unified secondary
education, and exceptional educational measures, respectively. Based
on the prospect of the population of Japan aging rapidly, the topic
of how to raise children who will live in an aging society is extremely
important, and to add to the proposals of the 1st report relating to
the model for education in response to a changing society, chapter 5
presents the model for education in response to an aging society.
Chapter 1 The model for education which responds to individual abilities
and aptitudes
(1) The necessity of and basic way of thinking about education which
responds to individual abilities and aptitudes
Education can be said to be a tool to help children along "the
road to self-discovery". Through education children learn the basic
essentials needed to live in society, uncover their individuality, and
choose a way of life appropriate to themselves. In this iterative process,
through trial and error and the accumulation of various experiences,
the aim is self realization, and providing appropriate support for this
is the most important task of education. Taking this kind of education
as essential, respecting each person's individuality as uniquely precious,
and aiming for its growth, must be the fundamental way of thinking about
educational reform.
(Aiming for the realization of a full and mature society)
As mentioned in the 1st report, in the post-war period Japan strove
for economic growth and pursued material abundance. As a result of people's
untiring efforts, today, material abundance has been achieved, but conversely,
people have lost "room to grow", and are not necessarily able
to achieve self-realization and a rich sense of humanity. In Japanese
society homogeneity-oriented and peer-group consciousness, and the excessive
value put on a person's age are as strong as ever, but in recent years,
people have come to desire a rich sense of humanity and self-realization
based on a variety of values. In the future in Japan a respect for individuality,
the possibility of independent and responsible individuals making various
choices, and aiming for the construction of a full and mature society
will be demanded.
In order to aim for the realization of this sort of full and mature
society, we must advance educational reforms that will allow children
to acquire the talents and abilities to live independently, to establish
their individuality, and pursue their own self-realization. To that
end, the most important thing is for society as a whole, beginning with
teachers and parents, to relate to education by recognizing children's
varied individuality, and by possessing the consciousness and values
to respect each person's differences. Moreover, as mentioned above,
deeply-rooted values in our society such as homogeneity-oriented and
peer-group consciousness, and the excessive value put on a person's
age form the background to a number of topics in education not least
of which is excessive examination competition. That these hinder the
realization of an education that values the individual should be recognized,
and it is requested that we adults shift our own values in and establish
the value of the individual.
(Responding appropriately to social changes)
In the future Japanese society will come face to face with rapid changes
including internationalization, the growth of an information-oriented
society, the development of science and technology, an aging society,
and declining birth rates, and will enter a period of turbulence and
violent change, in which the way forward is obscure. It is indispensable,
in order to develop a vigorous society in this country, to cultivate
human resources with individuality, and creative human resources that
can respond flexibly to these kinds of social changes. Especially, in
the various areas such as economics, science, and technology, the need
for our country to contribute to international society and open up new
frontiers for itself has grown, and the cultivation of originality and
creativity and the development of individuals' varied talents has become
an extremely important topic in education.
(Cultivating "zest for living" amid "room to grow")
In the 1st report, it was requested we aim for the realization of a
full and mature society, and taking into account the development of
rapid changes in society such as internationalization and the growth
of an information-oriented society, the importance of cultivating "zest
for living" in children amid "room to grow" was underlined.
"Zest for living" is the ability to identify problems for
oneself, learn for oneself, think for oneself, make independent judgements
and actions and solve problems well; these are its important pillars,
and in order to cultivate "zest for living", we would like
to point out the indispensable aim of further advancing a way of thinking
that respects individuality.
Amid "room to grow", in schools, families and the community,
children accumulate various rich experiences such as various living
experiences and experiences of nature, social experiences and volunteer
experiences, etc., as well as having exchanges with various people.
Children use these sorts of actual experiences and exchanges with people
as learning material, and through a process of trial and error, discover
their interests in a process that must be referred to as the budding
of individuality. In learning models of living and society, as well
as nature, children reflect thoroughly on human existence and ways of
life. Through this process they bring to life the knowledge they have
gained from books, and acquire "zest for living", which includes
learning for oneself, thinking for oneself, etc., and have cultivated
in them a rich sense of humanity.
Taking this into account, when thinking about the model for future education,
it is possible to say that it is important to develop an education which
responds to individual abilities and aptitudes, based on a fundamental
way of thinking that respects individuality aiming to cultivate "zest
for living" amid "room to grow".
(Expanding opportunities for children to make choices)
In order to realize this kind of model for future education, it is natural
that we adults, starting with those concerned with education, must exert
effort, but a point of note is that together with changes in society
and values becoming more varied, it has become difficult for those who
provide education such as schools to respond appropriately to children's
individual needs based on their judgement alone. In other words, in
a full and mature society that recognizes the varied choices of individuals,
in education as well, it is necessary to expand the range of options
children themselves or their parents can independently choose from.
Of course, freedom of choice based on the concept of respect for individuality
exists in the context of people living within society, where it would
be inappropriate to simply have unlimited freedom. It cannot be forgotten
that freedom of choice goes together with the principle of individual
responsibility that states "with choice based on individual judgement
comes individual responsibility for one's actions".
Moreover, accompanying a broadening of the range of independent choices
available to children and parents in education, it is thought that further
diverse measures in schools and regional public bodies, etc., which
occupy a position close to children, will be strongly requested. Thus
it is important that each school, and the regional public bodies that
are responsible for their establishment, namely, those most directly
involved in education, should have the range of their area of discretion
expanded, and be allowed to fully demonstrate creativity and originality.
(Upholding timeless, unchanging values in education)
In the above, while claiming the importance of an education which responds
to individual abilities and aptitudes, we have held up the fundamental
principle of respect for individuality. At the same time, the importance
of advancing an education which responds appropriately to social changes
was also pointed out. However, in education, in addition to "those
things that it is necessary to change in accordance with changing times"
(flow), it is important not to forget that there also exist "those
unchanging values that transcend different ages" (immutability).
In the 1st report the importance of timeless, unchanging values in education
was also pointed out, but we would like to emphasize again that first
come learning the basic essentials, cultivating a rich sense of humanity
with consideration for others and a sense of justice, etc., and cultivating
hearts that respect Japanese traditions and culture, things that will
remain important no matter how much society or the ages change. When
thinking about the original model for the principle of respect for individuality,
the principle of respect for others and the harmony of society, for
example, living together with others and showing consideration for others,
being tolerant toward what is different, possessing an awareness of
society and a sense of morality, and a heart that gives weight to a
sense of justice and fairness must co-exist, and it must be said that
the importance of aiming to realize timeless, unchanging values in education
will only become greater in the future.
(2) Shifting from valuing formal equality in education to respecting
individuality - Improving articulation between different levels of schooling
Looking back with this way of thinking, until now Japan strove to disseminate
education which emphasized equality in education, and aimed to maintain
and improve the standard of education. No matter where in the country
they were located or in what school they studied, children were taught
with approximately the same content and methods. Under a nearly single-tracked
6-6-3 school system, many children moved up to upper secondary schools
and universities. Overall, education in Japan, along with the achievement
of outstanding quantitative reach and development, on the qualitative
side as well, in the achievement of a high standard of education, has
delivered major successes.
However in this country in valuing equality, beyond valuing formal equality
in education, even equality of outcomes was expected, and as a result,
the education system was constructed to be uniform, and it is a fact
that there was a tendency toward rigidity in operation. It can indeed
be said that in terms of educational content and methods, the school
system, and the educational system overall, sufficient attention was
not necessarily given to respecting children's and parent's independent
choices and the area of aiming to expand children's varied individuality
and abilities.
Moreover, with the problem of a society preoccupied with academic credentials
as a background, and amid increasingly excessive examination competition,
a single assessment criterion, academic tests, were overvalued, and
children's varied individuality and abilities were not sufficiently
evaluated.
Securing equality of opportunity in education is important in any age,
and from now on as well, continuing efforts to this end are fundamental.
However, until now in Japan, demands for formal equality have been too
strong, and that an education which responds to individual abilities
and aptitudes has not been given sufficient consideration must be rectified.
Up until now education was controlling, and in all areas the idea was
"Everyone together and equal"; approaches must now be advanced
to shift this idea to "Contents, methods and approaches that respond
to each person's individuality and abilities".
While being an obvious point, in advancing these approaches, the fact
that there are differences in children's individuality and abilities,
and that their interests also differ, must be taken into account. It
must also be recognized that for each child there is a suitable way
of learning and rate of progress, and that there are differences in
each person's strong and weak areas. In education from now on, sufficient
consideration will be requested for enriching learning for children
with exceptional abilities, and at the same time, for teaching which
responds to the individual for children who are behind in learning,
and for children who wish to learn at a tranquil pace, taking detours
and undergoing a process of trial and error. In other words, through
preparing educational contents, methods and approaches for responding
to each person's differences and peculiarities, discovering children's
good points, as well as expanding and evaluating their individuality
and abilities, it becomes extremely important to have children feel
the joy of learning and draw out their latent possibilities.
Of course, up until this point too, in order to develop an education
which responds to each person's abilities and aptitudes, curriculum
reform aiming at diversification of content and methods in elementary
and secondary education., diversification and individualization in higher
education, and other improvements have been aimed for, and at present,
effort continues to be expended. Nonetheless, at present, furthering
approaches to rectify uniformity in the educational system overall has
become an urgent task, requiring not only advancing various approaches
at the individual school level, but also revising the model of articulation
between different levels of schooling. In concrete terms, when wanting
children to think about their own way of living, choosing paths appropriate
to themselves, and in developing educational activities that make use
of children's varied abilities and aptitudes in each school, the model
for selection methods for entry to universities plays a very important
role, and in aiming to realize an education which responds to individual
abilities and aptitudes, aiming to improve that model is indispensable.
Moreover, in order to develop an education which responds to individual
abilities and aptitudes, it is thought to be extremely important that
in the present school system, a multi-track structure, flexibility be
advanced, and the range of children's and parent's independent choices
be expanded. Based on this way of thinking, in aiming to improve the
articulation between different levels of schooling, the following topics
were considered to be of particular importance:
(i) Improving selection methods for entry to upper secondary schools
and universities
(ii) Unified Secondary Education
(iii) Exceptional Educational Measures
Deliberations advanced focused on these, and are presented in concrete
terms below.
Chapter 2 Improving selection methods for entry to upper secondary schools
and universities
Section 1 The excessive state of exam competition
The problem of relaxing excessive examination competition has been looked
into previously by the 14th Central Council for Education and the University
Council, with effort expended for various improvements. The 15th Central
Council for Education, in the 1st report, evaluated these proposals
and efforts toward improvement, and pointed out the necessity of relaxing
excessive examination competition in order to cultivate "zest for
living" amid "room to grow". With this in mind, we deepened
our deliberations on this topic.
It is thought that, as will be explained below, from a long term perspective,
when the absorptive capacity of upper secondary schools and universities
amid a rapidly declining birthrate is considered, excessive examination
competition will be relaxed. Nonetheless, the increase in juku attendance
and the shifting of examination competition to lower age groups are
emblematic of an examination competition for universities and upper
secondary schools, certain universities and upper secondary schools
in particular, which remains as fierce as ever and has drawn in many
parents and children. The current situation will certainly not be resolved
through a declining birthrate alone.
It has been observed that children drawn into examination competition
are very conscious of entering a "good university" from an
early age, thus losing "room to grow" in their lives overall.
Then, with nerves worn thin from excessive examination competition,
it becomes difficult to cultivate a rich sense of humanity without sufficient
opportunities to experience various everyday life experiences, social
experiences, and experiences of nature. It is thought especially alarming
that elementary school children attend juku until late at night, which
can in no way be considered desirable.
What is more, excessive examination competition invites a model of education
and learning in upper secondary schools and lower school levels that
shows a tendency to simply cram knowledge into children's heads for
examinations, which leads to a significant gap with the direction of
educational reform which aims to encourage a shift toward education
emphasizing learning for oneself and thinking for oneself.
Of course, it will be difficult to find solutions for relaxing examination
competition that will satisfy everyone. Indeed it is inevitable that
some selection method be used when applicants converge around certain
schools. In terms of securing social mobility, individuals' varied abilities,
individuality, and desires, as well as their various efforts and experiences,
can be appropriately evaluated through the selection process, and it
cannot be denied that the existence of a certain degree of competition
is necessary. In school life and social life, competition is inescapable
in various forms, and it can also be said that it is necessary to support
the vitality of society overall that people wield their individuality
and abilities. It cannot be said that it would be appropriate to look
for measures that would allow applicants to advance to their desired
universities without that which is called effort. However, in this country
today, various competition occurs with the aim of entering upper secondary
schools or universities, and the tendency can be seen to condense all
competition into only one criterion for assessment, namely the quantity
of knowledge possessed at 15 years and 18 years of age. Under this single
criterion for assessment, children's efforts become directed at how
many points they can effectively collect, and even young children are
drawn into the competition, giving rise to various ills as mentioned
previously. It is thought that this sort of model must be corrected
with the maximum efforts of those concerned.
When taking into account the current excessive state of examination
competition, we were made aware once again of the necessity of relaxing
excessive examination competition in order to realize the model for
education in the future that cultivates "zest for living"
amid room to grow. This is also indispensable to expand children's varied
abilities and individuality. Based on this fundamental way of thinking,
various deliberations are note below regarding improving selection methods
for entry to universities and upper secondary schools. The problem of
excessive examination competition is also affected by, among others,
the problem of a society preoccupied with formal academic credentials
and the model for hiring and promotion in companies and government ministries,
and therefore the problem of a society preoccupied with academic credentials
has also been discussed.
In order to ensure a full and vigorous society in Japan in the 21st
century, it will be demanded that we aim to move toward "a society
where people can freely choose between learning opportunities and learn
throughout their lifetimes, with the results of that learning appropriately
evaluated", in other words, a lifelong learning society. From the
point of view of trying to realize the principle of a lifelong learning
society as well, a situation where an evaluation of great weight is
placed on which university a student entered at the age of 18, leading
to the development of excessive examination competition, must be rectified.
When considering that Japan is entering a period of turbulence and violent
change, in which the way forward is obscure, with the economic structure
changing, and the values of society becoming more diverse, it will become
such that the great significance attached in the past to an 18-year-old's
success or failure in an examination will diminish, and what has been
learned in the person's life thereafter, and what genuine accomplishments
the person has achieved ,will become important. While emphasizing this,
concrete proposals are presented below.
SectionQImproving selection methods for entry to universities
(1) The current state of selection methods for entry to universities,
and effort toward various improvements until now - Changing university
entrance examinations
Successive improvements in selection methods for entry to universities
have occurred one by one based, among other sources, on the reports
of the 14th Central Council for Education and the University Council.
Before making proposals for the model of future improvements in selection
methods for entry to universities, we would like to outline here the
course of improvement in recent years.
A multi-faceted evaluation of applicants' abilities, aptitudes and other
attributes is important to selection for entry to universities, and
beyond academic tests and the adoption of short essays and interviews,
to that end, special selection is being expanded, including admission
on recommendation, etc., special selection for students returning from
overseas, and special selection procedures for adults. Further, in recent
years diversification has advanced in newly established quotas for graduates
of specialized upper secondary schools and integrated courses, and others.
If entrance examinations in 1978, before the introduction of the Joint
First-Stage Achievement Test and entrance examinations in 1997 are compared,
the number of national and public universities introducing interviews
increased from 35.0% to 91.9%, of short essays from 33.3% to 93.9%,
and of listening tests from 7.5% to 35.1%. The introduction of special
selection has also advanced, from 32.5% to 83.8% for the introduction
of admission on recommendation, from 0.8% to 68.2% for special selection
for students returning from overseas, and from nil to 41.9% for the
introduction of special selection procedures for adults. In private
universities as well, there has been a diversification in selection
methods, in 1996, the introduction of admission on recommendation had
reached 97.4%, the introduction of special selection for students returning
from overseas 54.1%, and the introduction of special selection procedures
for adults 48.2%
These are introduction rates seen from the number of universities. When
seen from a quota base however, the proportion does not seem as high;
at national and public universities, the percentage of selections where
academic ability is investigated using individual examinations alone
is somewhat under 60%.
When observing individual universities various experiments are being
undergone in national, public and private universities. As an example
of essays being emphasized, at one university, there is a course where
3 books must be read before an examination, and essays must be written
on the books over a 3-hour period. As an innovation in grading, at one
department of a university, the results of NCUEE examinations and individual
academic tests are  scored
with the NCUEE examinations given extra weight  scored
with the individual academic tests given extra weight  scored
with equal weighting. These three different scores, together with reports
from students' previous schools and health checkups then become the
basis for a comprehensive judgement used as the selection method. In
terms of different selection criteria utilized, there are university
departments where half the quota are selected with priority placed on
an evaluation of exceptional activities and achievements in upper secondary
school life as recognized by a combination of reports from students'
previous schools, self-recommendation, and letters of recommendation
from concerned persons, and where half the quota are selected based
on results of NCUEE examinations. Moreover, apart from general entrance
examination methods, there is a university where there are 13 types
of methods being used overall to carry out selection including a selection
based exclusively on an essay and English ability, a selection giving
weight to English abilities including listening comprehension, and a
selection giving weight to mathematical ability. In terms of weight
being given to reports, there are universities making efforts to get
a comprehensive grasp of examinees' abilities through their own reports.
In medical departments, there is a trend toward interviewing all examinees,
establishing a quota for transfer students for those who have graduated
from other universities and departments, and constructively accepting
those who have the aptitude and goal-orientation for becoming physicians.
In this way, the diversification of selection methods, and using diversified
assessment criteria has clearly advanced, and this is large part due
to the introduction of NCUEE examinations. NCUEE examinations have as
their principle goal enabling the judgment of the level of achievement
of fundamental learning at the upper secondary school level, and by
combining these with individual examinations, it has become possible
to advance the diversification of entrance examinations. The NCUEE examinations
allow for an assessment of fundamental learning, while at each university,
it has become possible to pour efforts into evaluating learning that
is especially needed in specialized fields, and through short essays
and interviews, etc., diversifying assessment. Moreover, in the NCUEE
examinations, subjects, courses of study and their weightings can be
freely determined, and the way the results are used can be chosen freely
as well. This a la carte style facilitates advancing the diversification
of examinations in universities.
Indeed, approaches to multiply opportunities to take examinations have
advanced. At the time of the introduction of the Joint First-Stage Achievement
Test, there was only one opportunity per year to take an examination
at national and public universities, but starting in with the entrance
examinations of 1987, individual universities introduced the "sequential
method" whereby examinations could be held on an A schedule, B
schedule, or C schedule. It thus became possible for an applicant to
take multiple examinations at national and public universities, but
since it was still only possible to take an examination once at the
same university or department, starting in 1989, individual universities
introduced dividing the quota for a department, using a method of holding
examinations twice (the "separating and dividing pattern")
together with the "sequential method."
Subsequently, the 14th Central Council for Education, with a view to
simplifying this complex method of implementation, introducing diversified
assessment criteria in universities, and advancing improvement in selection
for entry to universities through the direction of judging applicants'
abilities, individuality and other attributes in a multi-faceted way,
proposed unification around the "separating and dividing pattern".
Accepting this proposal, in national universities starting in 1997 entrance
examinations were unified around the "separating and dividing pattern",
and entrance examinations will also be unified around the "separating
and dividing pattern" at public universities starting in 1999.
As well, the number of private universities that hold examinations several
times at the same university or department has increased. Our evaluation
is that today, through these various efforts for improvement, university
entrance examinations are definitely changing, but the topics that will
be discussed below remain as before, and to overcome this, it is thought
that further efforts should be requested.
(2) The fundamental direction of improvement in selection methods for
entry to universities
(i) Change in the environment surrounding higher education and topics
in selection methods for entry to universities
The environment surrounding higher education is undergoing great changes,
as shown by the population of 18-year-olds falling and the percentage
of students moving on to university advancing (the percentage of students
moving on to a junior college or university [the number of entrants
as a proportion of the population of 18-year-olds] increasing from 36.3%
in 1990 to 46.2% in 1996), the development of science and technology,
internationalization, the growth of an information-oriented society,
changes in economic structure, the growing needs of the citizenry for
lifelong learning, and other changes. With these changes as a background,
each university will be called on to respond to the various needs of
society by developing educational study of a global standard, offering
various educational opportunities that respond to a wider slice of the
population and more. The necessity is increasing for each university
to rethink each and every educational concept and goal, and develop
varied and individual educational activities. In this context, and when
the overall absorptive capacity of universities amid a rapidly declining
birthrate is considered, it is thought that excessive examination competition
will be relaxed overall. According to the calculations of the University
Council, if half the temporary quota were made permanent in the years
2000 to 2004, the absorptive capacity of universities (the number of
entrants divided by the total number of applicants) would reach 100%
in the year 2009, and in theory it is expected that anyone desiring
to move on to university would absolutely be able to enter some university.
Nonetheless, the topic of competition surrounding selection for entry
to universities is not a problem of overall absorptive capacity, but
that the competition surrounding certain universities for which there
are many applicants is as fierce as ever, and a situation that invites
the shifting of competition to lower age levels.
When surveying the state of selection for entry to universities, as
mentioned previously, much effort has already been expended on various
improvements including the diversification of selection methods and
using diversified assessment criteria, the multiplication of opportunities
to take examinations, and improvement in admission on recommendation.
However, there is a tendency in current selection for entry to universities
to overvalue academic examinations with written tests that simply measure
the amount of knowledge of the applicants. Education in the future requires
giving weight to the cultivation of "zest for living" with
the ability to learn for oneself and think for oneself and extending
children's individuality. Regarding selection for entry to universities
as well, from now on, it is necessary to further give a wide evaluation
of children's varied individuality, abilities, aptitudes and desires.
And once university has been entered, it is necessary to make it easier
to change paths, including making admission by transfer easier for those
who have found a more appropriate course of study. In the background,
obstructing improvement in the model for selection for entry to universities,
lies a problem that is as strong as ever and cannot be overlooked, namely,
the excessive value put on formal equality, and the concept that determining
passing or failing based on academic examinations alone is fair and
equitable in Japanese society overall, including educational circles.
Conscious of the necessity of aiming to overcome these kinds of problems
surrounding the selection for entry to universities in order to relax
excessive examination competition, we had to advance debate to make
concrete proposals.
(ii) The direction of improvement in selection methods for entry to
universities in various foreign countries
The existence of examination competition is in no way a Japanese problem
alone. In the advanced countries of the West, the tendency toward examination
competition was born along with advances in the spread of higher education,
and in countries showing rapid economic development in Asia and elsewhere,
along with the aim to catch up economically, an excessive examination
competition has developed the intensity of which exceeds even that of
Japan. In this kind of situation each country has been advancing its
own responses.
In the case of selection for entry to universities, for example, in
America, while there are universities which will allow entry to anyone
who holds the qualification of being a high school graduate or who fulfills
a certain standard set by the university, there are also highly competitive
universities, and for them, a multi-faceted and careful evaluation takes
place through admission offices based on academic performance in high
school, SAT (An aptitude test consisting of two areas, verbal and math
[SAT I] and a specific academic subject [SAT II] ) scores, letters of
recommendation, activity records, short essays, applicant profiles,
and interviews, etc. In Britain, in addition to GCE examination results
that certify the level of achievement at the secondary educational level,
each university uses private evaluations from secondary school headmasters
and interviews to make a combined evaluation. Indeed, in France and
Germany those who possess the qualifying examinations Baccalaureat and
Abitur respectively, are in principle able to enter the university of
their choice without further selection, although recent increases in
the percentage of those going on to university is forcing a revision
of these principles. In Japan's neighboring country Korea, through repeated
reforms to the system, selection takes place through a combination of
reports on upper secondary school records, examinations similar to Japan's
NCUEE examinations, the University Academic Proficiency Examination,
and individual universities' examinations (in some universities). The
relative weight given to the reports on upper secondary school records
is substantial; they form an indispensable standard for judgement. Further
reform to the system is being carried out.
Thus the model for selection for entry to universities varies in each
county, and each reflects varied social and cultural backgrounds and
the history of that country's universities and other institutions. Moreover,
it can be considered that in each country various debates continue,
and in response to various changes in society, the process of unceasing
planning for improvement continues. It would not be appropriate to debate
on the merits and demerits of models for selection for entry to universities
in other countries based on a simple comparison with Japan, but after
taking sufficient consideration of actual Japanese circumstances, we
advanced debate based on a position of constructive reference, in order
to learn as much as possible.
(iii) The organization of higher education and the model for the system
In this section, with the aim of relaxing excessive examination competition,
we make concrete proposals regarding improvements in selection for entry
to universities, but the problem of competition surrounding the selection
for entry to universities is not simply a problem caused by the model
for selection itself alone. At this point we would like to point out
that a major reason for excessive examination competition is the deeply-rooted
existence of a hierarchical consciousness toward universities among
the citizenry based on standard scores, etc. The societal mechanism
that results in the formation of this kind of hierarchical consciousness
has been analyzed in detail in the report of the 14th Central Council
for Education. Its direct elimination poses difficulties, but although
seemingly indirect, it is thought the most important thing is to move
toward a diversified structure in higher education overall through each
university wielding its individuality and distinctive characteristics
based on its own educational philosophy and goals. Using the generalizing
of Standards for the Establishment of Universities in 1991 as an opportunity,
universities have been coming to grips with curriculum reform on the
basis of diversification and individualization. From now on, taking
into account the various changes in the environment surrounding higher
education mentioned above, university reform will surely develop further.
Through this kind of university reform, it is strongly hoped that universities
will achieve a varied development and that formation of hierarchies
between universities based on standard scores will be corrected. And
relating to the above, from the point of view of making access to higher
education possible at various stages in people's lives for people with
varied abilities, individuality and desires, it is thought that it is
even more necessary to rethink the model for the system of higher education.
(iv)The fundamental direction of improvement
Taking into account and being conscious of the above, and based on the
basic viewpoint of cultivating "zest for living" amid "room
to grow", as the fundamental direction for improvement in selection
for entry to universities, we would like to present the following five
directions, including the model for the system of higher education.
Those concretely responsible for improvements in selection for entry
to universities are the universities themselves, but it cannot be said
that it is appropriate that the model be rethought only by considering
circumstances on the university side. In order to improve selection
for entry to universities, along with gaining the broad understanding
of the population, contributions must be made to realizing a better
education. Taking into account that the problem of excessive examination
competition is an urgent topic that must be come to grips with by society
as a whole in order to cultivate "zest for living" amid "room
to grow" in children, this consciousness must be dealt with jointly
through national, public and private universities overall. Thus at each
university the point of view to build on is not only "Is our university's
selection for entry appropriate to developing educational activities
that correspond to our educational philosophy and goals?" but also,
"what kind of effect does the selection for entry to our university
have for education and society at the upper secondary school level and
below?", and then, taking into account the proposals below, we
would hope that improvements in selection for entry to universities
will be come to grips with. When making improvements, amid an increase
in the proportion of students going on to university, it is also thought
that it is more and more important that not only the view be taken of
universities making a selection, but also the view be taken that people
with varied abilities, aptitudes and desires be able to make an appropriate
selection regarding an educational path suitable for themselves.
The problem of a society preoccupied with academic credentials, which
is closely related to excessive examination competition, along with
measures in companies and government ministries and measures to reform
the consciousness of the population, are dealt with in section 4, but
from the point of view of stimulating these measures, we would like
to emphasize that it is extremely important that universities themselves
make the pioneering efforts to advance improvement in selection for
entry to universities.
(a) In order to reform a selection for entry to universities which overvalues
academic examinations, and make a diversified evaluation of abilities,
aptitudes, desires and interests, further effort is necessary to toward
the diversification of selection methods and using diversified assessment
criteria.
Especially, through the use of reports from students' previous schools,
short essays, interviews, practical tests, letters of recommendation,
etc., it is necessary to make a careful selection that gives weight
to a comprehensive and multi-faceted evaluation. Beyond giving weight
to a comprehensive and multi-faceted evaluation, it is necessary to
further advance the evaluation of various work experiences and activities,
as well as learning results and outstanding abilities in certain areas.
It is also necessary to expand opportunities for taking a variety of
examinations in order to make possible trial and error. In order to
advance these kinds of improvements, it is necessary to rethink the
concept of fairness that considers that a selection where passing or
failing is determined via a one point difference on academic examinations
is the most fair and equitable.
(b) It is necessary to work for improvement in selection for entry to
universities that respects the direction of reform in elementary and
secondary education which aims to cultivate "zest for living"
amid "room to grow" .
Especially, with the hope of giving "room to grow" to children's
lives overall, including their school life, at upper secondary schools
and below, while realizing an education that cultivates "zest for
living", it is necessary to advance the appropriate evaluation
of students' learning and activities at upper secondary schools, and
advance admission on recommendation. In this, improvements that take
into account that "zest for living" is not academic ability
alone, but an overall strength, and the aim is to shift the concept
of academic ability as well, from simple accumulation of the amount
of knowledge, toward the ability to learn for oneself and think for
oneself.
(c) Improvement to selection for entry to universities such as diversification
of selection methods and using diversified assessment criteria are quite
advance overall, but, centering on certain influential universities,
cannot said to be sufficient, and with regard to the above improvements,
when considering that these universities have a great influence on examination
competition and selection for entry to universities overall, it is necessary
for them to pioneer work on improvement.
(d) In order to advance improvements such as not overvaluing academic
examinations and adopting varied selection methods, it is necessary
to advance various related measures such as the provision of basic facilities
and improvements in career guidance.
Along with efforts at universities and such, in terms of administration,
supportive measures must be taken and it is necessary to aim for the
organizing admission offices, securing an unhurried entrance examination
schedule, strengthening coordination with related institutions, and
rounding out the provision of information.
(e) Along with improvement in the selection for entry to universities,
it is necessary to aim for a relaxation in examination competition relating
to certain universities, and in order to make lower the barriers between
different universities, move to a more flexible system of higher education
overall, as well making university education more substantial and evaluating
academic performance more rigorously.
In particular, it is necessary to advance the expansion of the transfer
of credits, admission by transfer, and adult admission, as well as making
re-admissions and students taking time off from their studies more flexible.
It is important to look at these improvements from the point of view
of securing various kinds of access to higher education by not being
overly preoccupied with age and academic ability, making it possible
to do things over again, and making it possible to undergo various work
experiences.
(3) Concrete measures for improvement in selection methods for entry
to universities
(A) The model for improving selection methods for entry to universities
We would like to discuss concretely how to advance improvements in selection
for entry to universities, taking into account the fundamental directions
covered in (2) above.
(i) Moving further toward diversification of selection methods and assessment
criteria from overvaluing of academic examinations in selection for
entry to universities
Although the diversification of selection methods and using diversified
assessment criteria has clearly advanced, a strong tendency to overvalue
academic examinations can be observed. Of course, it is natural for
universities to demand a certain level of academic performance, which
we are not trying to deny. The problem that we are pointing out here
is the evaluation of contents gained by concentrated memorization and
cramming through written tests alone, whereby those who are good at
this end up with the advantage. This model of selection for entry to
universities causes a shifting of education at the upper secondary school
level and below toward examination preparation education. We refer to
this situation frankly with the expression "overemphasis on academic
examinations". It is thought that this current model for the selection
for entry to universities which overemphasizes academic examinations,
as mentioned earlier, is the cause of various ills, and in particular
when evaluating this from the point of view of the model for future
education which seeks to extend the varied individuality, abilities,
aptitudes and desires of children, it is a major problem. When taking
account that the aim for future education is to cultivate the strength
of the total person, who can learn for himself, think for himself and
has "zest for living", the rethinking of the current model
for selection for entry to universities must be strongly requested.
Based on this sort of reflection, the model for selection for entry
to universities in the future must shift in terms of the underlying
tone from an overemphasis on the results of academic examinations with
written tests, where passing and failing is determined by a one point
difference, to the further penetration of the diversification of selection
methods and using diversified assessment criteria that corresponds to
the particular characteristics of each university and department. Through
this sort of diversification of selection methods and using diversified
assessment criteria, our eyes can stay fixed not only on the amount
of knowledge possessed at the time of entrance examinations, but also
on desire and enthusiasm for learning at university and extending abilities
after entrance to universities, and it is hoped that varied individuality
and abilities will be evaluated appropriately. The diversification of
selection methods and using diversified assessment criteria is thought
to be important not only from the point of view of aiming to extend
children's individuality, but through the acceptance of various kinds
of students, it should contribute to an overall enlivening of university
education and research.
(Making a careful selection based on a comprehensive and multifaceted
evaluation)
In order to actually advance diversification of selection methods and
using diversified assessment criteria, firstly the aim should be to
diversify and expand the range of subjects that can be selected between
for academic examinations, and to turn to diversified methods beyond
academic examinations such as reports from students' previous schools,
short essays, interviews, practical tests, and letters of recommendation
(including self-recommendation). Their constructive and innovative use
is requested. Because as assessment criteria each method has both advantages
and disadvantages, a careful selection is desirable based on a comprehensive
and multifaceted evaluation of students' varied abilities (including
academic ability), aptitudes, goal-orientation, desires and interests,
as well as the results of various efforts and activities, by appropriately
combining assessment methods. This kind of careful selection based on
a comprehensive and multifaceted evaluation is carried out in some American
universities, and in terms of accepting various students, has produced
good results. It is thought that Japan should work constructively to
introduce this kind of selection as well.
(The evaluation of various activities, experiences and learning achievements)
In evaluating individuals' varied abilities, aptitudes, goal-orientation,
desires and interests, it is important not only to make a comprehensive
and multifaceted evaluation, but also to evaluate various work experiences,
activities and experiences, outstanding abilities in certain fields,
and learning achievements. Concretely speaking, it is desirable to further
advance special selection procedures for adults and students returning
from overseas, to establish a quota for graduates of specialized upper
secondary schools and integrated courses, and to evaluate constructively
cultural, sports and volunteer activities both inside and outside the
school.
As a part of the above measures, it is thought that it would be meaningful,
for example, in the case of adult admission, after a certain period
subsequent to graduation from upper secondary school, if the door opened
wider for adults who have accumulated work experience or who have carried
out volunteer activities. To this end, it is necessary that universities
establish special quotas for these persons, evaluate their work experience
and volunteer experience, and by giving weight to self-recommendation
and recommendations from companies and other bodies, open a wide path
for their recognition for entry to university.
As far as consideration for graduates of specialized upper secondary
schools and integrated courses is concerned, beyond the expansion of
special selection, it is necessary to aim for the establishment and
expansion of a quota for admission on recommendation which covers these
students, and that substitution for vocational-based subjects in academic
examinations be recognized in more universities and departments. Further,
taking into account the relatedness of vocational education and education
in the universities and departments concerned, based on the judgement
of each university and department, the establishment of a quota for
admission on recommendation for graduates of designated specialized
upper secondary schools and integrated courses (who mainly deal with
vocational education) may be considered, also in the context of giving
consideration to the point of view of the importance of building up
universities in the regions.
(A selection for entry to universities that gives weight to the regions)
At present, regarding some quotas for entry to universities, there is
a small number of universities that carry out admission on recommendation
for specified regions and have a specified quota established for the
regions. However, from the point of view of advancing the building up
of universities rooted in the regions and advancing the rooting of young
people there, it is thought thatäit is meaningful that new quotas of
this kind for entry to university be introduced and expanded for admission
on recommendation based on the judgement of each university.
(Further consideration for persons with disabilities)
Persons with disabilities are already given special consideration with
regard to selection, but the various measures for diversification of
selection methods and using diversified assessment criteria proposed
in this section can also contribute to making an appropriate selection
for persons who can be placed in a disadvantaged position in terms of
academic examinations with written tests. It is only natural that for
the implementation of these measures, further consideration be requested
for persons with disabilities.
(The introduction of multiple selection standards for the same department/subject
in the same university)
With regard to concrete measures for advancing the varied selection
methods discussed here, it is desirable that these be appropriately
combined at each university. In particular, for the same department
or subject in the same university the introduction of multiple selection
standards should be further advanced; there is great meaning in making
it possible for children to be able to choose the methods of challenging
themselves that are most appropriate to the wielding of their own abilities.
It is thought that the "separating and dividing pattern",
where selection is carried out with different assessment criteria for
phase 1 examinations and phase 2 examinations in the same department
or subject in the same university at national and public universities,
can be evaluated as one method of aiming to diversify selection standards
and methods.
(Improvements at certain influential universities and some private universities)
We are requesting that regarding the above proposals, measures be adopted
at all universities, but in particular, we request pioneering measures
at certain influential universities. While it is understandable that
these universities give weight to an academic evaluation that corresponds
to their own educational philosophy and goals, the model for selection
for entry in these universities has a great influence on selection for
entry to universities overall, and indeed on society overall, and in
light of this, it is thought to be indispensable that they undertake
further innovations and improvements. This applies equally to the several
proposals made below.
At some of these universities as well efforts have been made for the
diversification of selection methods and using diversified assessment
criteria, and examples of experiments with leading measures can also
be seen. For instance, examples can be seen of, among private universities,
a comprehensive and multi-faceted evaluation at an admission office
(see below) being carried out with reference to documentation and interview-style
examinations based on "reasons for application" forms, reports
on activities since admission to upper secondary school, and applicant
evaluation forms, for a part of the quota, and for those applicants
who have satisfied certain qualification standards. Among national universities
as well, examples can be seen of measures such as essay-style examinations
being used in lieu of academic examinations for individual examinations
for a part of the quota for phase 1 examinations. We would like to give
a high evaluation to these measures, but at the same time, it must be
said that measures overall have been insufficient, and we must request
further efforts.
In some private universities, a tendency to make uniform evaluations
based on a single standard can be observed, such as using easy-to-handle
multiple choice style written exams in an overly limited number of subjects
in order to select a large number of applicants in a short period of
time. From the point of view of the model for future education which
aims to extend children's varied individuality, abilities, aptitudes
and desires, it must be said that this is a great problem. In the context
of the direction of improvement described up until this point, that
aims at diversification of selection methods and using diversified assessment
criteria by making a careful selection based on a comprehensive and
multifaceted evaluation, we would strongly request improvement in this
model for selection for entry to universities.
(ii) Expansion in opportunities to take examinations
It is important to aim to expand opportunities to take examinations,
in other words, make it easy, such that should children fail an examination
to enter the university of their choice, they can easily retake the
examination, or take up the challenge at another university, etc. It
is thought that the "separating and dividing pattern" is an
appropriate method that can be implemented as part of multiplying opportunities
to take exams beyond what they have been.
While keeping the fundamental admission period in April, it is also
necessary to expand autumn admission. When actually introducing autumn
admission, consideration must be given to the curriculum, such as introducing
the semester system, due to the heavier burden on the university side.
At present, it is in use in only a very small number of universities,
but with creativeness and innovation on the part of each university,
and starting on a small scale, we would like to see autumn admission
implemented.
For general applicants other than students who have returned from overseas,
foreign students and adults, autumn admission has the merit of expanding
opportunities to take examinations, but on the other hand, it is feared
that it might fan examination competition. Thus in selecting general
students for autumn admission, it is desirable that diverse selection
methods and diversified assessment criteria be used through a careful
selection based on methods other than academic examinations with written
tests.
What is more, since students who enter in the autumn graduate at a different
time from other students, it is necessary to request the consideration
of companies in their hiring activities.
(iii) Improvement in selection methods for entry to university that
respects the course of reforms in primary and secondary education
In the 1st report, regarding the direction of improvement in future
primary and secondary education, it was proposed that "zest for
living" be cultivated amid "room to grow", with for instance,
an emphasis on observations, experiments, exploratory activities and
a problem-solving approach to learning or hands-on learning, and further
improvement in educational content and methods was aimed for. It is
necessary to advance improvement in selection for entry to universities
which respects the direction of these improvements, and which appropriately
evaluates the learning and activities of students at upper secondary
schools.
As part of these measures, as mentioned earlier, it is extremely important
to change the underlying tone of the model for selection for entry to
universities which overemphasizes academic examinations. A selection
for entry to universities that rather overemphasizes the amount of knowledge
possessed causes a tendency for the model of learning to shift to stuffing
children full of knowledge needed for examinations, which becomes a
great hindrance to giving "room to grow" in their lives, including
their school life. Moreover, this model for selection for entry to universities
gives rise to a great contradiction with the great shift in the view
of academic ability from it being simply the amount of knowledge possessed
to it being the ability to learn for oneself and think for oneself and
the view that "zest for living" is not only academic ability,
but an overall strength that includes such things as a rich sense of
humanity.
In concrete terms, with regard to selection for entry to universities,
it is first necessary to debate the model of the use of reports from
students' upper secondary schools, which have not necessarily been viewed
as important until now. These reports evaluate among others students'
ordinary state of learning, and have as their purpose the provision
of a reference for making a comprehensive and multifaceted evaluation
of students' varied abilities, not only their academic abilities, and
in order to give a very detailed evaluation of students' activities
at upper secondary school, they are important materials that cannot
be neglected. Being conscious of this, it is necessary that persons
concerned with universities and those concerned with upper secondary
schools coordinate their mutual efforts, and work toward a greater use
of reports. In particular, along with deepening the understanding of
the significance of reports from students' previous schools among those
concerned with universities, taking into consideration that it has been
pointed out that the existence of differences between levels of academic
ability at upper secondary schools causes problems with the effectiveness
of these reports and hinders their use, it is necessary that organized
measures be carried out, centering on persons concerned with upper secondary
schools, to increase their effectiveness. Methods of using reports from
students' previous schools should without question include their appropriate
combination with academic examinations, short essays, interviews, practical
tests and letters of recommendation. Further, in accordance with the
educational aims of each department or subject in universities, certain
prerequisites should be specified with regard to the special register
and its levels of achievement, and the state of the registered subjects
should be confirmed through the reports. The introduction of this method
(designated subjects system) may be considered. Without making students'
learning burden heavier than necessary, and in order to secure "room
to grow" in student life, it is necessary to reduce the number
of subjects covered by academic testing, and through this kind of designated
subjects system and other methods, the effective use of reports from
students' previous schools must be considered.
Next, with regard to the implementation of academic examinations, while
posing questions that do not deviate from the purpose of upper secondary
school education, and taking into account that "zest for living"
is the ability to think for oneself, questions that merely test the
amount of knowledge should be avoided as much as possible, and questions
that demand creative and logical thinking ability must be posed. Moreover,
with regard to concrete methods of posing questions, while taking into
account that "zest for living" is an overall strength, and
that the promotion of cross-curricular and comprehensive learning is
being aimed for in future education, constructive consideration must
be given to comprehensive questions and short essays that cover areas
that cannot be categorized into one subject. It is also necessary to
advance research and development relating to the posing of these sorts
of questions and methods for evaluating them at the NCUEE.
In the evaluation of individual subjects as well, in keeping with the
nature of each subject, improvement that respects the direction of reform
in primary and secondary education is requested. In science for example,
taking into account the direction of improvement which aims to cultivate
a scientific perception and thinking in students, the posing of questions
that require scientific thinking ability in academic examinations, and
observations and experiments in practical tests can be considered. Involving
observations and experiments in the selection for entry to universities
can be expected to pose difficulties due to the constraints involved
in implementing these for a large number of applicants over a short
period of time, but in this case, the above-mentioned designated subjects
system can be made use of, and the carrying out of a certain number
of observations and experiments in upper secondary school being made
a condition for application can be discussed.
With regard to foreign languages, English in particular, taking into
account the direction of improvement which aims for, among others, encouraging
communication ability, the inclusion of listening in the selection for
entry to universities, use of the designated subjects system, and the
use of the Eiken (proficiency test in English) need to be given more
consideration. Beginning with NCUEE examinations, improvement in the
posing of examination questions is being aimed for at universities and
elsewhere, but it has been pointed out that the model for English question
content in some universities, by placing great weight on questions relating
to grammar and sentence structure, becomes a source of obstruction of
reform of English education at the upper secondary school level and
below, and further improvement in not only English education, but in
examination questions as well, is requested. Compared with other subjects,
the trend to make English an mandatory subject in many academic examinations
can be seen. This in itself cannot be denied as part of advancing education
which responds to internationalization, but in keeping with educational
philosophy and goals in each university and department, while advancing
the use of the designated subjects system and Eiken, flexible thinking
in, for example, not having English as an examination subject for a
part of the entry quota, is possible.
(ix) Improvement of admission on recommendation
In advancing the diversification of selection methods and using diversified
assessment criteria, admission on recommendation is extremely meaningful,
as mentioned before, in the sense of being improvements that respect
the direction of improvement in primary and secondary education, and
contribute greatly to the relaxation of examination competition. Viewed
in this way, it is desirable that the proportion of the entrance quota
(for admission on recommendation) be expanded, together with aiming
to increase the number of universities and departments implementing
it, including certain influential universities.
Taking into account the aim of admission on recommendation, it is natural
that there be certain rules that must be strictly observed, such as
that it is inappropriate that students being admitted on recommendation
be subjected to academic examinations, and that the opening of the acceptance
period should be in November or later.
Also related to admission on recommendation, as a method of having recommendation
be composed mainly of persons other than those concerned with upper
secondary schools, the establishment might be considered, for example,
of a system of self-recommendation where applicants can hand over documentation
supporting their appeal to the university, without the documents going
through the upper secondary school with it handing them over, but to
open up the path to documents being handed over directly by the student
in cases where this is sanctioned by the university. Moreover, in the
same way, use of recommendations from social education bodies, regional
bodies, sports-related bodies and other bodies outside the school can
be considered. It is thought that measures of this kind can also contribute
to making the education system more flexible.
(v) The model for NCUEE examinations and individual examinations
All national and public universities and some private universities participate
in NCUEE examinations, and together with a yearly increase in the number
of universities making use of them, their varied, beneficial use has
been advanced in accordance with the adoption of an a la carte style
combining NCUEE examinations with individual examinations through each
university's innovations, among other methods. The questions on NCUEE
examinations are in large part considered to be good questions, and
the fact that the diversification of selection for entry to universities
is being aimed for is something that can be evaluated, and taking into
account the fundamental model for NCUEE examinations, advancing their
further improvement would be appropriate.
Since the main purpose of NCUEE examinations is to judge the level of
achievement of students' fundamental learning at the upper secondary
school level, close coordination with persons concerned with upper secondary
school regarding their utilization is very desirable. To this end, it
is desirable to construct a system for planning, implementing and evaluating
NCUEE examinations, while gaining the broad cooperation of persons concerned
with upper secondary schools, including for the formulation of examination
questions.
In the case of each university using NCUEE examinations, from the point
of view of diversification of selection methods and using diversified
assessment criteria mentioned above, it is necessary to reduce academic
examinations as part of individual examinations and appropriately combine
reports from students' previous schools, short essays, interviews, practical
test, and letters of recommendation (including self-recommendation).
This is because it is thought that requiring re-examination of abilities
that can be judged by NCUEE examinations entails an overemphasis on
academic examinations, and in many cases this may cause an unnecessarily
large burden on applicants. At present, with regard to individual examinations,
measures that move in line with this direction have been advanced, but
centering on certain influential universities, they are insufficient,
in that it is necessary to advance measures further.
From the point of view of changing the way of thinking in universities
that determines passing or failing based on a one point difference on
academic examinations based on written tests, it is desirable that various
innovations in selection methods take place. For example, in keeping
with the particular characteristics of universities and departments,
if students attained a certain standard on the NCUEE examinations, subsequently,
methods of determining successful applicants based on materials other
than academic examinations, or classifying NCUEE examination results
into broad categories such as A,B,C, and D, and without questioning
the precise score further, combining these with other materials to determine
successful applicants, might be considered. It would be meaningful if
this sort of method were put into wide use, and we hope for constructive
measures on the part of universities.
In this way, it is desirable that the beneficial use of various NCUEE
examinations be advanced at universities, but furthermore, if at a university
that gives weight to practical tests in the selection for entry, such
as at a fine arts related university, it is judged that the current
year's NCUEE examination results do not necessarily have to be used,
it is thought that it would be acceptable to use NCUEE examination results
over multiple years. However, in cases that are handled in this way,
a sense of injustice might be caused in those who plan to move on to
university directly after graduation from upper secondary school, so
it is necessary that universities undertake the responsibility of devising
plans such that this sort of problem does not arise.
As will be discussed later, this council takes a negative view of NCUEE
examinations becoming "qualification examinations", but although
the methods we are advocating here are not to lead to "qualification
examinations", they might be handled in a qualification examination-like
manner.
In relation to this question, we deliberated the propriety of NCUEE
examinations being implemented multiple times in one year. It was considered
that although it would be meaningful for students to be able to take
the examination multiple times and achieve a better result, on the other
hand, that examination competition would begin even sooner, and that
together with the taking of examinations multiple times while in upper
secondary school, a considerable burden would be placed on students,
influencing upper secondary school education, that the burden on universities
and others implementing NCUEE examinations would be extremely great,
and that it would lead to various other problems as well, and thus that
it is necessary that discussions on this topic take place in the future
among those persons concerned.
At present, the policy is to unify individual examinations at national
and public universities around the "separating and dividing pattern".
While supporting this policy, when taking into account that diversification
of selection methods and using diversified assessment criteria with
regard to phase 2 examinations is relatively advanced, it is thought
that it is necessary that consideration be given so that the proportion
of students admitted under phase 2 examinations be made appropriate.
In particular, when observing the number of students admitted under
phase 2 examinations in proportion to the total, despite the fact that
the average is 30% in all national universities, in certain influential
universities the proportion is only 10%, or under 20%, and it is necessary
to consider an expansion of this.
From time to time the opinion is heard that NCUEE examinations should
be made into "qualification examinations". The specific content
of the argument varies, but if the idea is that "only persons who
have earned a certain score should be qualified to take university entrance
examinations", at present "upper secondary school graduation"
qualifies one to take university entrance examinations, and the establishment
of double qualifications is considered to be problematic.
On the other hand, regarding the argument for making it so that all
persons who have achieved a certain score can enter the university of
their choice, it must be said that this would be impossible to realize.
This is because in the case of universities and departments for which
there are many applicants, even if they were all given a pass, it would
be impossible to recognize them all for immediate entry due to absorptive
capacity and teaching system problems, to name just a few, an enormous
waiting list would develop each year, and in the end it is supposed
that some sort of selection would have to take place. Then, if some
sort of selection had to take place, qualification examinations would
either perform the function of culling the number of applicants, or
else be used as one of a number of selection materials. In either case,
the result would not mesh with the purpose for establishing the "qualification
examinations". Thus, this council considers that this way of thinking
cannot be adopted.
(B) The promotion of measures relating to laying the groundwork for
advancing improvement in selection methods for entry to universities.
As discussed in (A), in advancing diversification of selection methods
and using diversified assessment criteria, such as implementing a careful
selection process, the burden on each university implementing the selection
methods becomes quite large, and gives rise to issues that the universities
themselves cannot respond to adequately. Thus the administration must
advance preparing the groundwork, which includes constructing supportive
measures, organizing admission offices, improving coordination between
related institutions, and rounding out the provision of information;
related measures such as improving career guidance must also be advanced.
Concrete measures relating to these are discussed below.
(i) Organizing admission offices
Aiming for the diversification of selection methods and using diversified
assessment criteria, in particular in order to advance a careful selection
for entry to universities which emphasizes a multi-faceted and comprehensive
evaluation, and to advance an improvement in selection methods for entry
to upper secondary schools which gives weight to reports from students'
previous schools while respecting the direction of reform in primary
and secondary education, it is necessary to organize an implementation
system. However, from this point of view, when observing the model for
selection for entry to universities in Japan, it cannot be said that
this implementation system is sufficient.
In some American universities, a considerable number of specialized
staff run admission offices, carrying out the actual work from the recruitment
of students to their final selection. At these admission offices, diverse
information is gathered on the applicants, including students' high
school grades, SAT ( aptitude test and specific academic subject test)
scores, and achievements in sports, cultural and volunteer activities.
The information is studied, and a multi-faceted evaluation is carried
out.
In Japan this example should be referred to, and taking into account
the particular characteristics of Japanese universities, the model for
a Japanese style admission office should be discussed, and is desirable
that its special provision be aimed for. With regard to the topic of
what role and powers should be bestowed on a Japanese style admission
office for it to carry out its functions effectively, and how to secure
the human resources to be responsible for these, it is hoped that debate
can be advanced with flexible thinking that does not overvalue the models
for the organizational management of universities as they have existed
until now. Moreover, with regard to the organization of admission offices,
for example for universities that are coming to grips constructively
with diversification of selection methods and using diversified assessment
criteria by using special selection methods, it is hoped that these
in turn will be advanced.
(ii) Ensuring an unhurried admission examination schedule
The selection for entry to university occupies an important position
as the first step toward educational activity at the university, and
in advancing diversification of selection methods and using diversified
assessment criteria, it is important that universities go to sufficient
lengths. If one turns to the amount of time spent on these, expending
a suitable amount of time on implementing selection is necessary. To
this end, it has become such that for admission on recommendation, selection
takes place starting in November. However, for general selection as
well it is necessary to ensure an unhurried admission examination schedule
to make it possible to make a multi-faceted evaluation. At present,
selection for entry to universities is for the most part completed by
the 3rd week in March, but in order to carry out careful admission examinations,
it is
necessary to secure more time. Due to the relationship between students'
job search period and the influence on university education, a certain
limit exists, but it is necessary to discuss extending implementation
somewhat. In particular, taking into account the situation where for
individual examinations in the 2nd phase at national and public universities,
measures for the diversification of selection methods and using diversified
assessment criteria are relatively advanced, it is desirable that certain
influential universities expand the proportion of students admitted
under phase 2 examinations. To this end, it is necessary to have these
admission examinations implemented over a longer period of time. And
at private universities, by including short essays and interviews, as
well as long answer questions on academic examinations, it is hoped
that a more multi-faceted evaluation can take place with careful admission
examinations. From this it is thought that it would be acceptable if,
according to circumstances, the admission examination implementation
period were extended into April.
(iii) Improvement of career guidance and rounding out of the provision
of information pertaining to universities
There are all different kinds of occupations, and each person has his
own way of working and living and has a professional life and life in
society suited to themselves. Taking into account that fundamentally,
career guidance in upper secondary schools should help students deepen
their understanding of their future life in society, and while thinking
about who they want to be and their way of life, offer guidance and
assistance as they search for their own future path, it is necessary
to make guidance relating to moving on to university and finding work
more substantial. When observing guidance relating to moving on to university,
there is a tendency to depend on standard scores based on the results
of mock examinations, and guidance becomes having students select universities
and departments that they are able to enter rather than universities
and departments that they want to enter. Some guidance also tends to
pour energy into entering a certain university or department, and evaluating
upper secondary school based on success in this alone. From now on,
it will become increasingly necessary to advance further improvement
aiming in a direction where students can think about who they want to
be and their way of life, and possessing a goal-orientation, independently
select and determine their own path. Moreover, it is necessary to advance
further improvement in a direction where at the time students make a
concrete selection regarding the university of their choice, taking
into account their own abilities, aptitudes, desires, interests, etc.,
and giving sufficient consideration to their own future way of living,
with they themselves having a sufficient understanding of the educational
content and particular characteristics of the universities, they then
make their selection. During the time surrounding the decision, the
provision of information pertaining to universities should not end with
the abstract only, it is desirable that it include the constructive
involvement of student-for-a-day experiences, and through the cooperation
of companies, etc., the implementation of training in the workplace.
Together with improvement in career guidance in upper secondary schools,
efforts are necessary to further advance the accurate provision of information
on the particular characteristics and educational content of each university
and information on selection for entry to universities to upper secondary
schools and students at The NCUEE and individual universities. Currently
The NCUEE provide information through the Heart System which uses the
Captain System, but in the future it will be necessary to think of methods
that are easier to use, including the use of networks on personal computers
and the internet.
As far as this kind of information provision at universities is concerned,
beyond the use of these information networks, not only is the holding
of explanatory sessions for those concerned with upper secondary schools
important, but it is also desirable to further expand opportunities
for upper secondary school students and their parents to be introduced
to universities through such activities as the holding of student-for-a-day
experiences and campus visits. Further, as far as the provision of opportunities
for upper secondary school students to come into contact with high-level
education and research at universities is concerned, this will be covered
in Chapter 4, but from the point of view of rounding out the provision
of information concerning universities, this is also thought to be meaningful.
As far as the relaxation of excessive examination is concerned, as will
be discussed in Section 4, reforming the consciousness of the population
is indispensable. To this end, it is necessary to publicize the changing
nature of selection for entry to universities to the citizenry, including
students and parents, and for this information dissemination, further
constructive measures centering on the administration will be necessary.
As far as the mass media is concerned, we request accurate reporting
relating to improvement in selection for entry to universities and reporting
that does not pointlessly fan examination competition.
Regarding the withholding of information on successful applicants' upper
secondary schools and home towns, etc., at present, from the point of
view of protecting personal information, many universities are advancing
measures in this regard, but in the future, from the point of view of
correcting a society preoccupied with academic credentials, it will
be necessary to further advance these kinds of measures.
(iv) Outside evaluations relating to the selection methods for entry
to universities
With the preparation of obligatory regulations regarding self-evaluation
under the revisions to the Standards for the Establishment of Universities
in 1991, at present universities are working on self-evaluation relating
to educational research activities overall, but it is considered difficult
to say that among these selection for entry to universities is being
emphasized. However, the selection for entry to university occupies
an important position as the first step toward university education.
Moreover, society has a great interest in this problem, which happens
at a point of contact between universities and society at large. As
such, universities should request opinions from a wide variety of external
sources through the announcement, etc., of the self-evaluation, and
at the same time, in order to further ensure the objectivity of the
evaluations, by making use of consultative committees and such, the
opinions of knowledgeable local people, people involved in local industry,
persons concerned with upper secondary schools, parents, etc., can be
brought to bear. It is thought that advancing such measures to introduce
outside opinions is necessary.
(v) Strengthening the functions of the NCUEE and coordination between
universities and upper secondary schools
In order to advance improvement to selection for entry to universities,
mutual understanding and cooperation between persons concerned with
national, public and private universities and persons concerned with
upper secondary schools is becoming more and more important. Up until
this point, for the model of selection for entry to universities, coordination
has taken place through various meetings set up by the Ministry of Education,
Sports, Science and Culture, and the NCUEE, and various individual gatherings
of bodies related to universities and upper secondary schools, but from
now on, it is necessary to carry out a constant and organized coordination.
Also in order to advance improvement to selection for entry to universities,
taking into account the situation in various foreign countries, constant
empirical research must be carried out at universities and other locations
on the relationship between selection for entry to universities, upper
secondary school education and university education, including the model
for selection methods and assessment criteria, the concrete model for
the posing of examination questions, and follow-up studies on the interrelationship
between performance at the time of entry to university and the performance
after entrance, among other topics. The results of this research then
have to be reflected in education. In particular, the NCUEE should carry
out this sort of empirical research itself, and along with collecting
research results from the universities, we would hope that their function
of acting as a central organ for presenting information relating to
this to persons concerned with upper secondary schools and national,
public and private universities, and the population at large, can be
strengthened.
(C) Moving to a more flexible system of higher education overall
In order to relax excessive examination competition, along with advancing
improvement in selection for entry to universities, it is important
to rethink the model for higher education, including moving to a more
flexible system of higher education overall. To this end, we now would
like to discuss concrete measures.
(i) Moving to a more flexible system of higher education overall
Along with relaxing excessive examination competition, in order to change
the consciousness of a society which is preoccupied with formal academic
credentials, it must be made so that evaluating academic ability based
on students' age and written tests is not overvalued, the route must
be opened to constructively changing paths in education, it must be
made possible to do things over again, and undergo various work experience,
in other words, based on the point of view of securing varied access
to higher education, it is important to rethink the system of higher
education overall. In concrete terms, through expanding the transfer
of credits, expanding school transfers and adult admissions, and responding
flexibly to the need for re-admissions and students taking time off
their studies, it is necessary to move to a more flexible system of
higher education overall.
The transfer of credits means the recognition of students' completion
of courses at other universities, in response to their own desires,
and obtaining credit for them. Aiming constructively to promote this
is thought to be extremely important in terms of the aim to move in
the direction of valuing students' learning history, without overvaluing
formal academic credentials. At present, the attitude in people at universities
is widespread that in order to approve graduation from university, students
must have obtained their credits from that specific university, and
due in part to this, the spread of the transfer of credits is not necessarily
proceeding smoothly. From now on, along with promoting constructive
university reform, eradicating this attitude, and utilizing the information
networks that have grown quickly in recent years, it is important to
stimulate constructive measures for the transfer of credits between
national, public and private universities, the transfer of credits with
overseas universities, and further, the granting of credit for learning
achievements outside universities including professional training colleges
and the results of proficiency tests. One barrier to carrying out the
transfer of credits at national, as well as public and private universities
was the problem of reciprocal exemption of course fees, but although
measures have been added to the system to address this at national universities,
further constructive measures are desirable. The University of the Air
will soon be beginning nationwide coverage via communications satellite,
and taking into account that promoting coordination between universities
is one of the main goals of the University o f the Air, it is hoped
that it will play a leading role in the transfer of credits as well.
Transfer admissions are being expanded from junior colleges and colleges
of technology through the establishment of transfer admission quotas,
but further expansion of transfer admissions must be aimed for.
At present, not only is the acceptance of transfer students from other
universities unusual, but the situation is such that even changes between
departments or subjects within the same university are unusual. In cases
where after entry to university, students think seriously about their
own way of living and wish to constructively change their path of study,
it is desirable that this be responded to as much as possible, and it
is necessary to respond flexibly and constructively with regard to changing
between departments or subjects within the same university and transfers
from other universities. The acceptance of persons who have graduated
from other universities or departments could also be considered. Re-admissions
and students taking time off their studies is dealt with severely at
universities, but although it is necessary to take into account the
particular educational characteristics of each university, it is also
necessary to proceed more flexibly to allow those who wish to return
to return.
Although adult admissions have been expanding rapidly in recent years,
it is necessary to further promote this. After graduation from upper
secondary school, the door should be opened wider for those with certain
work or volunteer experience, and to this end it is necessary to advance
the establishment and expansion of a special quota for adults, the evaluation
of work and volunteer experience, and through self-recommendation or
the recommendations of companies and other bodies, the granting of their
admission. Of course, in aiming to expand adult admissions in this way,
it is necessary that the hiring practices of companies, etc., be flexible,
and in this respect as well improvement is requested.
(ii) Making university education more substantial and evaluating academic
performance more rigorously
While selection for entry to universities in Japan is strict, it must
be said that moving up through the university and graduating is relatively
easy, which is a cause of companies, rather than looking at what students
have learned, looking at which university students entered, leading
to the tendency to overvalue formal academic credentials. It is necessary
to think about this problem from the point of view of how to make university
education more substantial, and aiming for the improvement of educational
methods through the creation and public announcement of syllabuses,
the expansion of education in small numbers, the implementation of faculty
development (the overall term for organized measures to improve course
content and methods by faculty), and the utilization of varied media.
Through the promotion of curriculum reform, aiming to enrich and strengthen
educational functions, it is important to work for the cultivation of
the human resources that are truly needed by society. From these fundamentals,
it is necessary to make the evaluation of academic performance after
entry to university more rigorous.
Section 3 Improving selection methods for entry to upper secondary schools
(1) The current state of selection methods for entry to upper secondary
schools, and effort toward various improvements until now - Changing
upper secondary school entrance examinations
Taking into account the reports of the 14th Central Council for Education
and the Upper Secondary Education Reform Promotion Council, from the
point of view of diversification of selection methods and using diversified
assessment criteria, successive efforts at improvement have been advanced.
In concrete terms, the improvements that have been advanced in prefectures
and schools include the implementation of admission on recommendation,
rendering more flexible the relative weight given to reports from students'
previous schools and academic tests, innovations in academic tests,
innovations in the evaluation and use of reports from students' previous
schools, the implementation of interviews, short essays, essays and
practical tests, the implementation of varying methods and criteria
for different categories for entry quotas, and the multiplication of
opportunities to take entrance examinations.
With regard to the state of improvement in selection for entry to upper
secondary schools (for the 1997 academic year), in the case of public
schools, when observing implementation in prefectures, over 70% of prefectures
have implemented admission on recommendation, innovations in academic
tests, innovations in the evaluation and use or reports from students'
previous schools, interviews, short essays, essays and practical testing,
and the considerable spread of improvement can be inferred. For example
admission on recommendation has been implemented in 46 prefectures.
With regard to innovations in academic tests, 36 prefectures carry out
weighted scoring in courses for which this has been implemented, of
which 14 prefectures carry out weighted scoring for courses with high
grades or in self-declared subjects. With regard to innovations in the
evaluation and use of reports from students' previous schools, there
are 41 prefectures which have established a column for state of learning
viewed from different perspectives. The number of prefectures carrying
out evaluations of volunteer and community service activities has reached
47. The number of prefectures implementing interviews has climbed to
47, those requiring essays or short essays to 34, and those carrying
out practical tests to 45 prefectures.
In private schools as well effort is being expended for improvement,
with over 70% of schools implementing admission on recommendation and
interviews.
When observed in detail, measures for rendering more flexible the relative
weight given to reports from students' previous schools and academic
tests, innovations in which subjects academic tests are carried out
in, the implementation of varying methods and criteria for different
categories for entry quotas, and the multiplication of opportunities
to take entrance examinations, have only been carried out in a minority
of prefectures. Moreover, with regard to implementation in prefectures
of the various improvements discussed until this point, there are prefectures
where the number of upper secondary schools involved is not necessarily
large, especially for regular courses, leaving room for further measures,
but overall, as a result of efforts toward various improvements, the
evaluation may be made that selection for entry to upper secondary schools
is definitely changing. However, there are problems that will be discussed
in the following that remain as before, and to overcome them, further
effort must be requested.
(2) The fundamental direction of improvement in selection methods for
entry to upper secondary schools
(i) Increasing the percentage of students proceeding to upper secondary
schools, and topics in selection methods for entry to upper secondary
schools
At present (in the 1996 academic year), the percentage of students proceeding
to upper secondary schools has reached 96.8%, truly making it a national
educational institution. Together with the increase in the percentage
of students proceeding to upper secondary schools, along with other
factors, responding to diversification in students' abilities, aptitudes,
desires, and interests, individualizing and diversifying upper secondary
school education will become even more necessary, and at present, various
efforts are being expended to this end. However under present circumstances,
with examination competition heating up, many upper secondary schools
are competing with each other on the basis of how many of their students
go on to university, especially to certain influential universities,
and the selection for entry to universities leads to an overemphasis
on academic examinations, with the tendency to question the quantity
of knowledge being strong. That these combine to invite the formation
of hierarchies between upper secondary schools based on a single measure,
namely standard scores, cannot be denied. Amid a declining birthrate,
although from the point of view of the absorptive capacity of upper
secondary schools overall, it would be possible to absorb virtually
all students wanting to move on, for general courses at upper secondary
schools deemed useful to gain entry to university, especially for certain
influential upper secondary schools, examination competition is as fierce
as ever, entailing a great psychological burden for children at a sensitive
age. From the point of view of giving children "room to grow"
and cultivating "zest for living", it is requested the further
improvement be made in response to this situation.
Examination competition surrounding moving on to upper secondary schools
is intimately related to moving on to university, and it is thought
to be indispensable that improvement to selection for entry to universities
be advanced in order to advance the individualization and diversification
of upper secondary school education and relax examination competition.
However, this is not in the least to deny the necessity of aiming to
improve the selection for entry to upper secondary schools itself. We
believe it is necessary to work for further improvement in the model
for selection for entry to upper secondary schools itself, together
with the improvement in selection for entry to universities that will
be advanced from now on, and through a rethinking of its influence on
education at lower secondary schools and below as well as on society.
At present, various improvements are being advanced relating to selection
for entry to upper secondary schools, including diversification of selection
methods and using diversified assessment criteria, multiplying opportunities
to take examinations, and improving admission on recommendation, but
still now areas of uniformity are numerous, such as the weight placed
on evaluation of academic ability narrowly defined, and the situation
is such that the varied individuality, abilities, and aptitudes of children
are not necessarily being sufficiently evaluated. At present, with the
number of students proceeding to upper secondary school increasing,
and the individualization and diversification of upper secondary school
advancing, the point of view to take is not only, "How can our
upper secondary school select persons appropriate this school",
but, "How can we make it possible for students, who possess varied
abilities, aptitudes, desires and interests, to choose an appropriate
educational path that is suitable for them?", and it is necessary
to advance improvement that gives more weight to this kind of viewpoint.
(ii) The fundamental direction of improvement
Based on the point of view of giving children "room to grow"
and cultivating "zest for living", we would like to present
the following six directions, as fundamental directions for improvement
in selection for entry to upper secondary schools, including reform
to upper secondary education.
(a) Taking into account the present situation where most children go
on to upper secondary school, the hurdles between lower and upper secondary
school should be made lower.
(b) In keeping with the particular characteristics of schools and courses,
it is necessary to further work for diversification of selection methods
and using diversified assessment criteria in order to evaluate students'
varied abilities, aptitudes, and other characteristics. In particular,
regarding public upper secondary schools, it is necessary that diversification
of selection methods not stop at the prefectural level, but penetrate
to the individual school level.
(c) It is necessary to work to improve a selection for entry to upper
secondary schools that respects the course of reform in lower secondary
schools and below that aims to cultivate "zest for living"
amid "room to grow".
(d) With regard to improvement in selection for entry to upper secondary
schools, through national, public and private schools, it is necessary
to advance measures, especially in upper secondary schools with regular
courses. It is also necessary to improve a selection for entry that
overemphasizes academic examinations at some national and private upper
secondary schools.
(e) In order to advance improvements in selection for entry to upper
secondary schools such as the above, it is necessary to advance related
measures such as improving career guidance and preparing the groundwork
through, for instance, perfecting coordination between lower and upper
secondary schools and rounding out the provision of information pertaining
to upper secondary schools.
(f) In addition to improvement in selection for entry to upper secondary
schools, it is necessary to advance the diversification of upper secondary
education and move to a more flexible system of upper secondary education
overall. (Expanding quotas for admission by transfer, making re-admissions
and students taking time off from their studies more flexible, expanding
coordination between schools, etc.).
(3) Concrete measures for improvement in selection methods for entry
to upper secondary schools
(A) The model for improving selection methods for entry to upper secondary
schools
Firstly, taking into account the fundamental directions for improvement
covered in (2), we would like to discuss concretely in what way improvement
in selection for entry to upper secondary schools can be advanced.
(i) Measures for making the hurdles between lower and upper secondary
school lower
The percentage of students proceeding to upper secondary schools has
reached 96.8% (for the 1996 academic year), and the fact that so many
children wish to study at upper secondary schools must be evaluated
positively. In these circumstances, the current selection for entry
to upper secondary schools imposes an unnecessarily heavy psychological
burden on lower secondary school students who are at a sensitive age.
It has been pointed out that this causes a loss of "room to grow"
in lower secondary education, which must be taken very seriously, and
it is necessary to make the hurdles of selection for entry to upper
secondary schools lower. In particular, based on the point of view of
helping students, with their varied abilities, aptitudes, desires, and
interests, make an appropriate selection of an educational path suitable
to themselves, rather than emphasizing the weeding out of students,
the aim should be to constructively evaluate students' exceptional areas.
From now on it will be extremely important to further advance diversification
of selection methods and using diversified assessment criteria, admission
on recommendation, and other methods that will be discussed below.
In particular, it is desirable that academic examinations be handled
based on a fundamental way of thinking that considers a score of over
a certain level sufficient, rather than competing over a one point difference.
Amid the advance of diversification of selection methods and using diversified
assessment criteria, as well as conducting evaluations based on different
points of view such as students' varied abilities, aptitudes, desires,
the results of their efforts and their activities and experiences, it
is impossible to find the meaning in determining passing or failing
based on a one point difference. In concrete terms, the broad advance
of methods where a score of over a certain level on academic examinations,
if obtained, can then give way to a selection based on other materials,
is considered to be necessary. In this respect, it would be acceptable
to discuss methods of turning to students' strong subjects when it comes
to evaluating academic examinations rather than using overall scores,
as is widely practiced at present. Furthermore, it would also be acceptable
to consider, in the case of entry quotas, handling these flexibly, for
instance, through considering as successful a certain range of candidates,
if these students are thought by upper secondary schools to have attained
a standard suitable for their particular school, rather than operating
these quotas overly strictly.
The number of subjects for which academic examinations are implemented
is at present 3 subjects for approximately half of private upper secondary
schools, but is 5 subjects in most public upper secondary schools. At
public upper secondary schools as well, while considering a combination
with reports from students' previous schools, etc., and in keeping with
the particular characteristics of each upper secondary school and course,
it is desirable that further diversification be advanced in designating
subjects and their number.
With regard to the multiplication of opportunities to take examinations
and the implementation of a second wave of recruitment, by the 1997
academic year only 9 prefectures had implemented the former in particular,
and measures taken can still not be said to be sufficient. It is desirable
that in the future, in keeping with the particular characteristics of
schools and courses, etc., further constructive measures be taken.
Furthermore, the selective introduction of unified secondary education
to be discussed later in this report will give children the opportunity
to select a path for moving on to the upper secondary school level without
undergoing entry selection, and as something that conforms to the direction
of measures to lower hurdles between lower and upper secondary schools,
it is thought to be very meaningful.
(ii) Diversification of selection methods and using diversified assessment
criteria
Regarding the diversification of selection methods and using diversified
assessment criteria, in the context of the advance of upper secondary
reform whose principle is diversification and individualization, the
need for a selection that corresponds to the particular characteristics
of upper secondary schools and courses themselves has heightened, and
this diversification must be demanded even more strongly than thus far.
In order to constructively evaluate children's' exceptional areas and
strong points from various points of view, along with children's diverse
individuality, abilities, aptitudes, desires, results of efforts, activities
and experiences, it is indispensable to use diversified selection methods
and diversified assessment criteria, and not only academic ability in
the narrow sense of quantity of knowledge. Through these sorts of measures,
it is thought that the breadth of choices students can make can be further
expanded.
In concrete terms, from the point of view of making a more multi-faceted
evaluation of children's varied individuality, abilities and aptitudes,
rendering more flexible the relative weight given to reports from students'
previous schools and academic tests, implementing short essays, interviews
and practical tests, and the evaluating of various proficiency tests,
cultural, sports and volunteer activities, etc., must be appropriately
combined. Further, it is thought that introducing multiple selection
standards in the same course of the same upper secondary school and
making selections, at the same time as broadening the breadth of choices
students can make, will serve to stimulate a liveliness in upper secondary
schools resulting from accepting varied students.
In particular, for selection for entry to upper secondary schools, concerning
the mostly widely used materials at present, namely, reports from students'
previous schools, and academic examinations, further varied measures
relating to their use are expected. For example, not only at the prefectural
level, but in response to the particular characteristics of upper secondary
schools and courses, varying the relative weight given to reports from
students' previous schools and academic tests, performing a selection
for some students who are not being admitted on recommendation that
does not require academic examinations, or on the other hand, carrying
out a selection based on academic examinations only and not making use
of reports from students' previous schools, as well as other methods,
can all be considered. Moreover, using weighted scoring between subjects
on academic examinations, having children select subjects, and giving
various choices regarding subjects in questions posed, etc., is thought
to be meaningful. Indeed, it is also considered acceptable to constructively
adopt methods such as, once a certain standard had been reached based
on academic examinations and reports from students' previous schools,
using the activity records that are part of the reports, students' activities
outside school, and other resources to determine passing or failing.
However, not making use of reports from students' previous schools and
using the results of academic examinations as the main materials for
selection, as part of diversification of selection methods and using
diversified assessment criteria can be considered meaningful in the
sense that students can choose a school or course using a selection
method suitable to themselves, but in order not to exacerbate the tendency
to overemphasize academic examinations, with regard to selection for
entry to upper secondary schools, consideration must be given to for
instance only implementing this for a part of the quota, or only for
some schools in a certain area.
As part of diversification of selection methods and using diversified
assessment criteria, aiming to diversify the materials used to make
a selection in order to make a precise evaluation of each student's
varied individuality, abilities and aptitudes, is considered to be an
effective method. Until now, except in cases such as admission on recommendation,
the main stream of selection has centered fundamentally on results of
academic examinations and reports sent from students' lower secondary
schools, but in order to give further weight to students' clear awareness
with regard to their academic path, and desires relating to learning
activities and school life at upper secondary schools, it is thought
that it would be meaningful to make constructive use of documents from
students, or parents where necessary, wherein the motivation to move
on to the school, and the subjects to learn there, or the specifics
of independent learning during the student's lower secondary school
years, including activities outside the school, are noted.
In recent years, the number of children refusing to attend school has
been increasing, and when considering the model for selection for entry
to upper secondary schools as well, it has become important to give
consideration to these children. In the current framework where reports
sent from lower secondary schools are emphasized in selection for entry
to upper secondary schools, for children who refuse to attend school,
there is not only a psychological burden, but it can be thought that
they will be given a low evaluation in the report in addition. Even
if they have refused to attend school, for children with sufficient
desire and ability to study in upper secondary school, it is desirable
that they be given a more appropriate evaluation, and to this end, it
is thought that aiming for the diversification and use of the kinds
of selection materials described above would be an effective measure.
Until now, consideration in various forms has been given in implementing
selection for persons with disabilities, but it is thought that the
various measures proposed here for the diversification of selection
methods and using diversified assessment criteria can make a contribution
toward making an appropriate evaluation in the case of persons who can
be placed in a disadvantageous position in academic examinations using
written tests. It is natural that, with regard to the implementation
of these measures, further consideration for persons with disabilities
be requested.
We hope that various measures such as the above can be advanced in national,
public and private schools. However, in order to further promote diversification
of selection methods and using diversified assessment criteria in selection
for entry to public upper secondary schools, while prefectural boards
of education should play a guiding role, within a certain range, concrete
selection methods must be left to the judgement of individual upper
secondary schools.
(iii) Improvements in selection methods that respect the direction of
improvement at the lower secondary school level and below
As mentioned in the section on improvement in selection methods for
entry to universities, in the 1st report, it was proposed that "zest
for living" be cultivated amid "room to grow". At the
lower secondary school level and below, the realization of these is
being aimed for, indeed, the shift from an education that seeks to inculcate
knowledge to an education for learning for oneself and thinking for
oneself is being aimed for. We would like to request that for improvements
in selection for entry to upper secondary schools, the direction of
improvement at the lower secondary school level and below be respected.
In concrete terms, it is first necessary to consider the model for the
use of reports from students' previous schools. In the selection for
entry to upper secondary schools, up until this point as well reports
from students' previous schools have been handled as being important
materials. However, from the point of view of aiming for their further
appropriate use, further innovations are desirable, not only in the
recording of learning achievements, but also with records of various
activities, for example, records of special activities, records of cultural,
sports and volunteer activities both inside and outside the schools,
records of interests and special abilities, records of athletic abilities,
etc., which should be constructively evaluated; learning records also
should be evaluated using various methods based on the particular characteristics
of each upper secondary school and course.
"Zest for living"
is the ability to think for oneself, and for academic examinations,
from now on it is necessary to evaluate academic ability on the basis
of whether this is being acquired or not, and taking into account the
aim of shifting the view of academic ability, it is necessary to avoid
questions that simply question the quantity of knowledge, and further
innovate to pose questions that require thinking ability. It is also
desirable to advance research into comprehensive questions that are
not overly categorized into narrow subjects.
Moreover, in some national and private upper secondary schools, a selection
for entry to upper secondary schools that overemphasizes academic examinations
is carried out, and while inviting a tendency in lower secondary education
and below to stuff heads full of knowledge for examinations, it also
invites a gap between school education and examination study, and we
would like to request that this model be rethought. In these schools,
the correction of the posing of questions that deviate from the purpose
of lower secondary education, such as so-called "incredibly difficult
questions" and "strange questions", is strongly requested.
Further, although this is not a problem with selection for entry to
upper secondary schools, in some national and private lower secondary
schools, there is a similar selection for entry, the reform of which
is also strongly requested.
(iv) Improvement of admission on recommendation
Admission on recommendation, including for regular courses, has already
been come to grips with quite constructively, but as a part of diversification
of selection methods and using diversified assessment criteria, from
here on as well it is hoped that this will be used constructively.
Admission on recommendation makes it possible to emphasize students'
exceptional areas, including their varied individuality, abilities,
aptitudes, desires, results of efforts, activities and experiences,
in a way that academic examinations cannot evaluate, and it is thought
that evaluating these areas more constructively will lead to a further
deepening in the meaning of admission on recommendation. Thus for admission
on recommendation it is necessary to evaluate not only cultural, sports
and other activities that take place as a part of schools' educational
activities, but it is also desirable that activities outside the school
such as volunteer activities be evaluated more constructively.
At present, with regard to this sort of out-of-school activity, lower
secondary schools receive information from social education related
bodies and sports related bodies, etc., in the community, the lower
secondary schools then evaluate this and pass on the materials to upper
secondary schools. However, it is thought to be important that from
now on these out-of-school bodies take a more independent stance vis
a vis lower secondary schools in the provision of information, and that
the lower secondary school side show a constructive posture in accepting
the information.
With regard to the implementation of admission on recommendation, in
order not to extend a bad influence on lower secondary education, it
should not take place too early, and academic examinations should not
be made a requirement, as seems to be the case at some private upper
secondary schools. In these and other ways, in order to adhere to the
purpose of admission on recommendation, certain rules must be observed.
(B) The promotion of measures relating to laying the groundwork for
advancing improvement in selection methods for entry to upper secondary
schools
As discussed in (A), in order to improve selection for entry to upper
secondary schools, promoting measures relating to laying the groundwork
through the strengthening of coordination between related institutions,
rounding out the provision of information, and improving career guidance,
etc., is important, and we would like to discuss concrete measures to
this end below.
(i) Organizing a system of coordination between lower and upper secondary
schools
In order to improve selection for entry to upper secondary schools,
it is indispensable that persons relating to lower secondary schools
and persons relating to public and private upper secondary schools aim
for mutual understanding, and carry out constant coordination. At present,
in a substantial number of prefectures, coordination systems are being
established, but it is difficult to say that they provide sufficient
functions as forums for constant coordination. To this end, in each
prefecture, with the support of the administration, we would like to
hope that a system can be prepared and utilized constructively.
It is necessary to work to correct the observed tendency for selection
for entry to upper secondary schools to occur over ever earlier periods,
and through the constructive use of the forums discussed above ensure
that lower secondary education is not impeded, beginning with the influence
on classes in the 3rd term of the 3rd year of lower secondary school.
(ii) Improvement in career guidance and rounding out of the system of
information provision pertaining to schools and entrance examinations
As mentioned in the section about improvement in selection for entry
to universities, career guidance should help students deepen their understanding
of their future life in society, and while thinking about who they want
to be and their way of life, offer guidance and assistance as they search
for their own future path. Taking this into account, it is necessary
to make guidance relating to moving on to upper secondary school or
finding work more substantial. When considering career guidance relating
to moving on to upper secondary school, the participation of lower secondary
schools in commercially produced tests is disappearing, and with regard
to a career guidance which depends on standard scores, etc., improvement
has advanced considerably. However, in the future, it will be necessary
to advance further improvement in the direction of having students think
about their own way of life, and with a goal-orientation, independently
choose their own path. Moreover, with regard to concrete desires to
attend a specific school, it is necessary to advance improvement in
the direction of selections which taking into account one's own abilities,
aptitudes, and interests, etc., give sufficient consideration to one's
future way of life, and which display a sufficient understanding of
the educational content and particular characteristics of each upper
secondary school. During the time surrounding the decision, the provision
of information pertaining to upper secondary schools should not end
with the abstract only, it is desirable to constructively provide enlightening
experiences that include involvement in student-for-a-day experiences,
and through the cooperation of companies, etc., the implementation of
training in the workplace.
With the advance of individualization and diversification in upper secondary
education, as well as diversification of selection methods and using
diversified assessment criteria in selection for entry to upper secondary
schools, it is more and more important that lower secondary schools
appropriately gather information regarding these and offer it to students
and parents more. It is also necessary that upper secondary schools
work to transmit this information, for example, it would be good if
they experimented with student-for-a-say programs more. Moreover, the
administration must make use of information networks, and organize a
system for providing information to students, parents, and lower secondary
schools.
(C) Realizing a varied and flexible system of upper secondary education
Along with advancing improvement in selection for entry to upper secondary
schools, it is necessary to advance diversity in upper secondary education
and move to a more flexible system of upper secondary education overall;
it is important to rethink the model for upper secondary education,
and we would like to discuss concrete measures to this end.
(i) Diversification of upper secondary education
As part of the background to excessive examination competition lies
the problem of a hierarchical consciousness toward upper secondary schools.
This hierarchical consciousness exists not only between schools with
regular courses, but between regular courses and specialized courses,
and among specialized courses, as well as between the full-time and
part-time schedules. It would be difficult to eliminate this sort of
consciousness immediately, but through advancing the individualization
and diversification of educational content at each upper secondary school,
and each school wielding its particular characteristics, it is necessary
to stimulate reform in this way of thinking. As a part of this kind
of diversification, in order to respond to students' varied abilities
and aptitudes, etc., and various circumstances, it is necessary to aim
for the organization of credit-based upper secondary schools and integrated
courses, including reorganization and conversion.
(ii) Moving to a more flexible system of upper secondary education overall
In order to relax excessive examination competition, as well as making
varied access to upper secondary education possible, it is extremely
important to move to a more flexible system of upper secondary education
overall.
From this point of view, in cases where students have a constructive
desire to change educational paths by changing schools or courses this
should be made easier, and a special quota should be established for
school transfers that might accompany the transfer of a parent to another
post or a return from overseas. Further efforts must be made to constructively
recognize the acceptance of these.
Moreover, sufficient consideration should be given to accepting persons
who have dropped out of upper secondary school or left after graduating
from lower secondary school, but then have accumulated social or work
experience, through the establishment of a special quota for adults
at upper secondary schools.
With regard to accepting school transfers for persons who have dropped
out of upper secondary school, along with their more flexible recognition,
in cases where students wish to take time off from their studies to
accumulate volunteer experience or social and work experience, their
re-admission should be given flexible recognition.
Along with carrying out flexible acceptances, credit-based upper secondary
schools are considered to be effective from the point of view of allowing
for the use of previously earned credits, and the organization of this
sort of school must be further advanced.
And in order to eliminate the hierarchical consciousness that exists
between schools, it is important to expand opportunities to learn at
other upper secondary schools and educational institutions, and it is
necessary that mutual coordination between upper secondary schools,
etc., be further constructively advanced.
Section 4 The problem of a society preoccupied with academic credentials
In order to relax excessive examination competition, it is necessary
to improve selection for entry to universities and upper secondary schools,
and proceed with university reform and upper secondary school reform,
but as was analyzed in detail in the report of the 14th Central Council
for Education, there is a deep relationship between this problem and
the problem of a society preoccupied with academic credentials. The
problem of a society preoccupied with academic credentials has arisen
from the model for hiring and promotion in companies and government
ministries, where particularly with regard to hiring, formal academic
credentials are emphasized, and many citizens, including parents, believe
to quite a degree in the schema "good school = good company = happy
life", which must be referred to as the myth of academic credentials.
Furthermore, it is considered that another contributing factor is the
homogeneity-oriented and peer-group consciousness of the population,
including parents. This state of Japanese society or societal consciousness
which is preoccupied with formal academic credentials is slowly changing,
but remains strong.
When considering how the problem of a society preoccupied with academic
credentials, with its various intertwined causes and background factors,
came to be, and in order to correct this problem, it is necessary for
measures to be advanced by schools, companies and parents, each from
their respective standpoints, and it can in no way be constructive to
shift responsibility among the various parties by saying that the schools
are bad, that companies and government ministries are bad, or that parents
are bad. With regard to measures on the part of schools, we have already
proposed and requested the implementation of various measures to improve
selection for entry to universities and upper secondary schools, university
reform and upper secondary school reform, but in order to respond to
this problem, not only these measures, but also improvement in the model
for hiring and promotion in companies and government ministries, and
carrying out reform to the consciousness of the population, including
parents, is indispensable.
The model for hiring and promotion in companies and government ministries
has been a large cause of a society preoccupied with academic credentials
and has also encouraged excessive examination competition. However,
great changes are occurring in economic structure, and Japanese-style
employment practices such as lifetime employment and the seniority system
are being shaken. Today the environment surrounding companies is becoming
ever fiercer, and movement toward reforming the model for hiring and
promotion can be observed.
This movement for reform can also be discerned in the various investigations
implemented vis a vis companies by economic bodies. For example, in
a survey carried out in 1996 by the Japan Federation of Economic Organizations,
many companies responded that in hiring they emphasized, for example,
"enthusiasm and desire" (Of companies responding the percentage
selecting this response was: 84.3% for arts students and 71.5% for science
students) and "creativity" (37.4% for arts students and 45.9%
for science students). Only a few companies responded that they emphasized
"school graduated from" (6.6% for arts students and 5.1% for
science students). Moreover, in a 1997 survey carried out by the Japan
Association of Corporate Executives, based on such ways of thinking
as "meritocracy will permeate companies, and it will also penetrated
the consciousness of society", "the fluidity of the inter-company
labor market will advance, and it will become possible for companies
to hire without concern for academic credentials", over 80% of
executives expected that "the current overemphasis on academic
credentials will be corrected in the future".
Of course, it cannot be said with certainty that this way of thinking
has been sufficiently reflected in companies' actual hiring and other
practices. However, according to the above-mentioned survey by the Japan
Federation of Economic Organizations, although only a minority of companies
have implemented hiring without asking for the name of the school candidates
graduated from (11.9% for arts students and 9.2% for science students),
or carry out hiring throughout the year (15.1% for arts students and
17.1% for science students), that number is increasing, and it is thought
that change is definitely occurring.
At government ministries as well, efforts have begun. For example, in
the case of national public servants, since 1992, for the hiring of
persons who have passed the Type I examination, care has been given
to hiring persons graduating from a variety of universities and educational
institutions without bias toward graduates from certain universities.
When observing the informal hiring situation for persons having passed
exams at ministries and agencies (administrative posts, legal posts,
and economic posts), hitherto graduates from certain universities had
60% of posts, but recently this has fallen to 50%, and in this and other
ways, it can be seen that the situation is gradually changing.
From now on, it is thought that this type of reform in companies, etc.,
may very well accelerate, but from the point of view of correcting a
society preoccupied with academic credentials, we would like to strongly
request constructive measures in companies, including of course the
complete elimination of the system of hiring from specified schools,
hiring that is not concerned with the names of schools, rethinking the
hiring of new graduates en masse, diversifying evaluation standards,
hiring based on the principle of character and ability that emphasizes
learning history rather than formal academic credentials, and promotion
based on ability that is not concerned with formal academic credentials.
The situation is the same in government ministries, and hiring and promotion
not overly preoccupied with academic credentials is strongly requested.
The values of the population, including parents, are diversifying bit
by bit, and the actual changes in companies, etc., may well serve to
further stimulate change in the consciousness of the citizenry. According
to a 1992 survey by the Prime Minister's Office, the percentage of people
who agreed to the way of thing that states that it is necessary to move
from a society that is preoccupied with academic credentials to a society
where learning at all points in a person's life is evaluated was 82.2%,
and the trend was relatively strong among younger age groups. It cannot
be said that the population yet fully appreciates the actual movement
where a society preoccupied with academic credentials is being shaken,
but as this survey also shows, there is a trend among the populace that
longs for this sort of change, and which can definitely be said to be
growing.
In the 1st report we stressed that the ultimate responsibility for children's
education and character formation rests with the home, and indeed, the
role the home must play in finding each child's abilities and aptitudes,
and extending their individuality, is extremely large. We would like
to hope that each parent will keep their eyes trained on the actual
movement of society and ask themselves, "What kind of education
will my child need in order to live in the society of the future?"
It is considered to be very important that parents are fully aware that
the meaning attached to which university a person entered at the age
of 18 will not be as great in the future, in the context of a person's
long lifetime, as it has been in the past. Amid a Japanese society which
is becoming a full and mature society that recognizes various choices,
it is asked that parents frankly seek out their children's individuality
without being caught up in homogeneity-oriented and peer-group consciousness,
and the excessive value put on a person's age, and while respecting
that individuality, help children on their "road to self-discovery."
Excessive juku attendance, especially, juku attendance for the main
purpose of preparing for examinations, is fundamentally, caused by excessive
examination competition that has quantity of knowledge as its only criterion
for value. It is first necessary to advance measures to correct and
relax this kind of competition. To that end, it is necessary to aim
for the improvement of selection for entry to universities, upper secondary
schools, and national and private lower secondary schools, and advance
efforts toward using selection methods that do not fan preparing for
examinations from an early age. At the same time though, parents must
realize their responsibility for their children's education, and think
deeply and anew as to whether excessive juku attendance on Saturdays
when there are no regular classes and until late in the evenings really
is desirable for their children. No less, we would like to hope for
restraint from persons related to juku. When observing the actual conditions
surrounding juku attendance, there are also cases where students attend
juku with the goal of supplementary learning because they cannot keep
up with classes at school, and from the point of view of correcting
excessive juku attendance as well, we would again like to request that
schools aim for the enrichment of teaching which responds to each individual.
With regard to advancing the concrete measures discussed in this chapter,
the Ministry of Education, Science, Sports, and Culture must of course
play a central role at the national level, but taking into account that
these measures must be supported by the whole of society, without limiting
activity to educational circles, while gaining the cooperation of related
ministries and agencies, and the support and understanding of the population
at large, including parents, companies, government ministries, etc.,
we would like here to emphasize the extreme importance of advancing
these measures.
Chapter 3 Unified Secondary Education
(1) The significance of unified secondary education and its selective
introduction
(i) The significance and distinctive characteristics of unified secondary
education
Today, in order to advance an education which responds to individual
abilities and aptitudes, it is necessary to improve not only educational
content and methods in school education, but also the articulation between
different levels of schooling, and varied and flexible responses at
the educational system level are requested. Especially with regard to
the model for secondary education, where children are at a sensitive
age of great emotional and physical growth and change, the necessity
of improvement has been pointed out. With this as a background to unified
secondary education, where education is carried out over an uninterrupted
6-year period, and lower secondary education and upper secondary education
are carried out continuously without requiring a selection for entry,
together with the increasing evaluation of the various benefits discussed
below, interest in educational circles and society at large has gathered,
and the propriety of introducing unified secondary education has become
an extremely important current topic.
In debate on educational reform to this day, debate on unified secondary
education has been carried out in various ways. In the report by the
Central Council for Education in 1971, "On the Basic Guidelines
for the Development of an Integrated Educational System Suited for Contemporary
Society", it was proposed that pilot projects for unified secondary
education should be tried as a first step toward promoting gradual reform
to the 6 / 6 / 3 education system. However, in part due to being unable
to gain the common understanding of persons concerned with education,
its implementation was seen off. Subsequently, in the "First Report
on Educational Reform" by the National Council on Educational Reform
in 1985, the establishment of a 6-year system for secondary education
was proposed, and based on this, concrete investigative research was
carried out. However, as was also pointed out in the report of the Central
Council for education, "Reforms of Various Educational Systems
to Adapt Them to a New Age" in 1991, there were fears that unified
secondary education would invite a shift in examination competition
to lower age levels, and in the end no conclusion was reached.
In contrast, observing the situation today, in fact unified secondary
education is being carried out with a certain growth at national and
private lower and upper secondary schools. And with regard to public
schools, in 1994, unprecedentedly, a prefectural lower secondary school
was established together with an upper secondary school in a continuous
form; the first unified secondary education had begun.
Taking into account investigative research based on proposals until
now, and on the unified secondary education situation in national, public,
and private schools, it is thought that unified secondary education
possesses the following distinctive characteristics: Firstly, in terms
of the benefits of unified secondary education, (a) To be able to experience
a stable school life with some leeway, free from the influence of selection
for entry to upper secondary school. (b) An effective, unified education
where planned and continuous educational guidance can unfold over a
6 year period is made possible. (c) By knowing the student continuously
over a 6 year period, it becomes more possible to help the student expand
his individuality and discover his exceptional abilities. (d) It becomes
more possible for students to develop sociability and a rich sense of
humanity through carrying out activities in mixed-age groups from the
first year of lower secondary school to the third year of upper secondary
school. On the other hand, in terms of problem areas, (a) The fear that
examination competition might spread to lower age groups if the proper
operation of the system is not aimed for. (b) The fear that education
skewed toward examination preparation might take place. (c) That difficulties
might arise at the point of graduation from elementary school with regard
to selection of education path. (d) That it might be difficult to run
a school that covers a wide range of students in terms of their emotional
and physical development. (e) The fear that since student groups will
tend to calcify with the same members over time, some students might
feel excluded from school life, and others, are brought up.
Thus unified secondary education presents problem areas, but also many
beneficial points as well. In particular, taking into account the concept
of giving children "room to grow" argued for in the 1st report,
it must be said that among the many benefits, there is great meaning
in making it possible for children to be able to experience a school
life with "room to grow". From the point of view of realizing
a school life with "room to grow", with children being able
to undergo various trial and error, accumulate experiences, carry out
rich learning, and extend their individuality and creativity to the
fullest, it is thought that this is particularly important today. Further,
it is hoped that within the discovering and extending of children's
individuality, the possibilities for giving sufficient guidance to students
who wish to learn at a tranquil pace will be expanded. Also, the introduction
of unified secondary education, by making the hurdles between lower
and upper secondary school lower, can be said to conform to the direction
of reform in selection for entry to upper secondary schools. Thinking
in this way, we reached the conclusion that it is desirable that the
opportunity to enjoy unified secondary education, with its many great
benefits, be offered more widely to children, and that the introduction
of unified secondary education is appropriate.
(ii) The selective introduction of unified secondary education
Therefore, how to place unified secondary education within the current
6 / 6 / 3 school system, and aim for its introduction? As a result of
carrying out deliberations from a broad viewpoint, rather than carrying
out reform that uniformly reforms the 6 / 6 / 3 system in favor of a
6 / 6 system, based on the following way of thinking, from the point
of view of broadening the range of choices available to children and
parents by advancing a multiple-track structure school system, it is
considered appropriate that a selective introduction of unified secondary
education be carried out.
It goes without saying that with regard to the benefits and problem
areas of unified secondary education discussed above, although all are
quite general, their weight varies from child to child and parent to
parent.
From another angle, what are the benefits and significance of the current
system? The special quality of the lower secondary school period, in
broad terms, is that it can be said that this is a period of great emotional
and physical growth and change for children. This period, amid a widening
and deepening of human relationships through various social experiences
and contact with varied individuality, is a very important stage, where
the relationship between oneself and society and one's future way of
life is considered, and one establishes oneself. In other words, the
position of this stage is that over 3 years of living and learning,
one's own abilities, aptitudes, interests and desires, not yet discovered
at the point of graduation from elementary school, can be found and
cultivated.
Considered in this way, the present system also has great benefits and
significance, such that while learning at lower secondary school, concretizing
one's desires and goals, and at the point when one's awareness of an
educational path has become clear, it is possible to choose independently
the most appropriate school from among various upper secondary schools,
one which responds to one's own abilities, aptitudes, and interests.
From this point of view, it is necessary to respect the numerous children
and parents who wish to reach a new level and move on to a fresh start.
Further, it is necessary to give consideration to the many children
and parents who wish for opportunities for human growth at each level,
lower secondary school and upper secondary school, through various exchanges
with as many friends as possible.
Even while making the most of the benefits and significance of this
current system, aiming to improve the selection for entry to upper secondary
schools is to be strongly desired. In section 3 of chapter 2, concrete
suggestions were made for the improvement of selection for entry to
upper secondary schools, under the directions of making the hurdles
between lower and upper secondary school lower, and advancing improvement
that respects the direction of educational improvement at lower secondary
schools and below, and we would like to point out once more the importance
of advancing measures that conform to these.
In any case, in the end those who make a comprehensive judgement, while
making a comparison with the current system, of the relative weight
of the benefits and problem areas of unified secondary education are
the children and parents, and while aiming to improve the selection
for entry to upper secondary schools, it is desirable that a flexible
school system be established that makes it possible to choose between
secondary education split into lower and upper secondary schools as
it has been until now, and unified upper secondary education.
The selective introduction of unified secondary education is also requested
from the point of view making secondary education overall more varied
and multiple-tracked, which is already advancing. At each school level,
so called "longitudinal diversification and multiple-tracking"
is advancing, within upper secondary schools, the expansion of integrated
courses and credit-system upper secondary schools, the formation of
a curriculum with a wide breadth of choices, the introduction of the
recognition of credits for learning achievements outside one's own school,
and in lower secondary schools, expanding the breadth of the option
register, etc. The flow might well gather more speed with the stimulus
of the 1st report. Amid this flow of the breadth of children and parents'
choices expanding, it is requested that the present secondary education
school system, where the room for choice outside the system of lower
secondary and upper secondary schools split into 3 years each is meager,
be rethought. The selective introduction of unified secondary education
is something that realizes so called "longitudinal diversification
and multiple-tracking", and as part of making secondary education
overall more diverse and multiple-tracked, and even more, advancing
a multiple-track structure for the schools system, its significance
is extremely great.
The selective introduction of unified secondary education does not only
expand the breadth of choices available to children and parents, it
contributes to expanding the range of the area of discretion of those
responsible for establishing schools, including regional public bodies
and school corporations, to develop distinctive education based on their
own creative innovations. Through reforms to the system discussed below,
it is of great significance that the regional public bodies, through
their own independent judgement, can offer a unified secondary education
that thus far has been the exclusive province of national and private
schools, from the point of view of making public schools more varied
and attractive, and to fairly offer the opportunity for children to
enjoy unified secondary education.
On the other hand, it has been pointed out that there are fears that
the introduction of unified secondary education could act as a further
stimulus to excessive examination competition. Taking into account that
the problem of excessive examination competition is one of the most
important topics that must be come to grips with in education today,
concrete measures are necessary to banish fears with regard to the introduction
of unified secondary education, and as part of the discussion of the
model for the introduction of unified secondary education below, we
would like to make some proposals in this regard.
(2) The concrete model for the selective introduction of unified secondary
education
(i) The actual form of unified secondary education
The introduction of unified secondary education is part of making secondary
education overall more diverse and multiple-tracked, and it has as its
purpose the widening of the breadth of choices available to children
and parents. It is requested that it be advanced while taking into sufficient
consideration the needs of those children and parents, as well as the
actual conditions in the regions. Thus when it comes to whether unified
secondary education should be introduced or not, and if introduced,
what form schools should take, it is thought appropriate to respect
the independent judgement of those who grasp children's and parents'
needs, and the actual conditions in the regions best, namely, regional
public bodies and school corporations, etc. And as far as the role of
the government in this matter is concerned, what is requested with respect
to regional public bodies, etc., is not the uniform introduction of
unified secondary education; it is considered that the government should
carry out necessary reforms to the system, including removing systemic
bottlenecks, so that regional public bodies, etc., using their own judgement,
are able to introduce unified secondary education.
With regard to the actual form of unified secondary education, we first
deliberated the model for school operators. When observing lower and
upper secondary schools at present, most lower secondary schools are
municipal schools, and for upper secondary schools, as a proportion
of the total, approximately 3 out of 4 schools are public (of which
a great majority are prefectural, and a very few are municipal) and
1 out of 4 schools are private. Then, in terms of basic actual forms
of implementation, it is thought that the following exist.
Firstly, as the 1st actual form of implementation, the form can be considered
where the same operator (prefecture, municipality, school corporation,
etc.) jointly establishes lower and upper secondary schools, and education
is carried out continuously without requiring a selection for entry.
In this regard, besides (a) the joint establishment of independent lower
secondary and upper secondary schools, as a further development, from
the point of view of securing continuity in school operation between
the lower secondary school and upper secondary school levels, (b) the
establishment and operation of schools on a 6-year system (in other
words, 6-year secondary schools) can also be considered. The current
system of compulsory education is stable, and for this kind of 6-year
secondary school, under this system, lower secondary education and upper
secondary education each has its educational content requirements, and
what is being considered is providing this together in one school. We
are not envisioning something of the character that would entail change
in the system of compulsory education.
Secondly, as the 2nd actual form of implementation, cases could be considered
where one or multiple municipal lower secondary schools and prefectural
upper secondary schools are coordinated, and education would be carried
out in a planned and continuous manner over a 6-year period without
requiring selection for entry to upper secondary school.
The various distinctive characteristics relating to unified secondary
education and its meaning, pointed out up to here, are fundamentally
common to all these various actual forms of implementation, and it is
thought that it is good that regional public bodies and school corporations,
taking the actual conditions of schools and regions into consideration,
choose the most appropriate form. This is to say, in order to aim for
a smooth introduction of unified secondary education, it is required
that the government carry out necessary reforms to the system in order
that regional public bodies and school corporations be able to choose
between these forms according to necessity.
At this point we deliberated on what reforms to the current school system
are necessary. Firstly, a prerequisite for unified secondary education
is that a selection for entry not be carried out at the time of advancing
from the lower secondary to upper secondary level, but under the current
system, this selection is required, and on this point, the system requires
reform. Also, for the 1st actual form of implementation, in the case
of establishment by regional public bodies, it is thought that reforms
to the system will be necessary for methods of allocating teaching staff
salaries, building costs, etc.
(ii) Educational content
With regard to the concrete educational content of unified secondary
education, in order to sufficiently realize its purpose of extending
as far as possible children's individuality and creativity within a
school life with "room to grow", at the compulsory education
level, the basic essentials should be properly taught, and in response
to the diversification in students' abilities, aptitudes, interests
and educational path with advancing age, it is desirable to emphasize
students' choices and provide an education that is as varied as possible.
At school where unified secondary education is carried out (below, "unified
secondary schools") it is hoped that with regard to educational
content, under this fundamental way of thinking, various creative innovations
will be worked out. However, it is especially necessary that, while
aiming for cooperation with the regions, and through the constructive
working in of various learning activities centering on social experiences
and experiences of nature, it will become possible to aim to discover
and extend students abilities, aptitudes, and other qualities in a way
that has been difficult in lower secondary and upper secondary education
as it has existed until now.
Regarding the models for educational content with unified secondary
education, deliberation was based on the types of courses in current
secondary schools; models were considered including (a) academic course-type
schools, (b) integrated course-type schools, and (c) specialized course-type
schools (vocational, fine arts, physical education, foreign language,
and science-mathematics courses, etc.) Of these, with (a), besides being
considered able to reply appropriately to the hopes of students who
think they wish to study at a tranquil pace, hands-on-learning can be
emphasized, systematic educational activities that make full use of
the special characteristics of the regions can be carried out and learning
that places emphasis on information, foreign languages, etc., can be
carried out, and through this, it is hoped that a further contribution
will be made the diversification of education in academic courses. (b)
is considered to be an extremely effective type from the point of view
of making it possible for students to choose independently from among
various courses, to respond to the increasing diversification in their
abilities, aptitudes, and interests, which accompanies their advance
from the lower secondary to the upper secondary school level. (c) can
be considered from the point of view of allowing the deepening of interest
relatively early in students who hold a clear goal-orientation and an
interest in for example, music, art, or sports, etc. When it comes to
actually introducing unified secondary education, through the combination
of these models, it is desirable that various courses be established
to broaden the width of choices students can make as much as possible.
In this way, with each having its significance, and also to aim for
their compatibility with the diversification in upper secondary education
currently being advanced, it is thought appropriate that each type be
possible in response to the actual conditions in regions and schools.
As discussed previously, in whether to establish schools where unified
secondary education is carried out or not, and if so which sort of schools
they should be, it is appropriate to respect the independent judgement
of regional public bodies and school corporations, etc., which grasp
the needs of students and parents, and the conditions in the regions,
and as far as educational content is concerned, it is desirable that
these choices be left to their discretion as well.
However, what is feared the most is that in the case of the academic
course-type, education skewed toward examination preparation might occur.
It is thought that academic course-type unified secondary schools cannot
be allowed to become "schools for the examination elite",
and promote the formation of hierarchies between schools based on standard
scores. We believe that education carried out skewed toward examination
preparation is inappropriate, and consider that this is not the point
of introducing unified secondary education. We strongly request of persons
concerned that this kind of education not occur.
It is thought that as a background to these fears lies the current model
for selection for entry to universities which overemphasizes academic
examinations. From the point of view of making possible the purpose
of unified secondary education, which is to make possible a school life
with "room to grow" where varied trial and error can be undergone,
and experiences accumulated, etc., it is necessary that the model for
selection for entry to universities shift from overvaluing academic
examinations toward diversification of selection methods and using diversified
assessment criteria. For this, it is necessary to debate in concrete
terms, for graduates of unified secondary schools including integrated
course-type schools and specialized course-type schools, from the point
of view of further realizing the purpose of unified secondary education,
having them accepted at university through methods such as admission
on recommendation.
Further, with regard to the current Courses of Study, which form the
overall standards for the curriculum, rendering the curriculum more
flexible has already advanced, and the careful selection of educational
content has been aimed for, and in order to make full use of this idea,
it is necessary that the aim of unified secondary education be reached,
namely making it more possible to experience a school life with "room
to grow", a process of trial and error, and the accumulation of
various experiences. Moreover, in future revisions to the Courses of
Study, it is thought that consideration will be given to a strict selection
of educational content and rendering the curriculum more flexible, with
for example, expansion of elective subjects, and it is necessary to
make full use of these ideas and be attentive to further realizing the
idea of unified secondary education.
As a problem related to educational content under unified secondary
education, we would ask that children and parents in elementary schools,
especially parents, understand the purpose of the introduction of unified
secondary education, and not choose a school only on the basis of whether
it seems useful from the point of view of university entrance examinations.
To this end, it is necessary that operators and other persons concerned
with unified secondary schools give sufficient consideration to appropriate
information provision, so that parents in particular can make choices
suitable for their children.
(iii) The development of distinctive education with unified secondary
education
We deliberated on what possibilities there are for schools introducing
unified secondary education to develop distinctive education, and of
what kind. Since the selective introduction of unified secondary education
aims to widen the breadth of choices available to children and parents,
for schools newly introducing unified secondary education, whatever
the type of educational content, it is desirable that they steadily
provide a more distinctive education. Of course, current lower and upper
secondary schools also are developing various distinctive educational
activities, but with unified secondary education, in the context of
being able to make sufficient use of "room to grow" over a
6-year period, it is considered that they will be able to provide distinctive
education broadly and effectively. As far as what concrete distinctive
characteristics unified secondary schools should deliver is concerned,
this is a problem that school operators such as regional public bodies
will have to consider, and this council is not trying to set fixed models
here, however, below we would like to present some examples of distinctive
characteristics. We also consider that it would be effective to develop
combinations these distinctive educational activities.
(a) Schools that emphasize hands-on learning.
From the perspective of emphasizing hands-on learning, fixing hands-on
learning around a unified 6-year axis of unified educational activities,
and with daily overall guidance spanning the various subjects, etc.,
it is thought that volunteer experience, social experience, work experience,
and experiences of nature can be incorporated, relative weight can be
given to actual observations and fieldwork, and a problem solving approach
to learning can be constructively worked in. For example, in the case
of the teaching of science, the formation of a curriculum covering a
6-year period will give birth to "room to grow", and it is
expected that it will be possible to pour energy into outdoor observation
of plants and animals, surveys of celestial bodies and climactic phenomena,
and experiments relating to physics and chemistry, which have not necessarily
had enough time allotted to them until now. Moreover, as a part of various
educational activities, training in the workplace over a certain period
of time at actual companies and other workplaces, to contribute to a
choice of future career and professional life, can also be considered.
.
(b) Schools that emphasize learning related to the regions.
From the perspective of emphasizing learning related to the regions,
it is thought that education activities can be developed over a 6-year
period with learning related to the region as the tone, and in each
subject, etc., educational content which makes use of the history and
culture, nature, and industry of the regions can be emphasized, and
through the advantageous use of various educational materials, the distinctive
characteristics of the regions can be reflected, human resources in
the regions can be constructively utilized for instruction, and coordination
can be aimed for with regional social education facilities and various
bodies. Through these types of educational activities, it is hoped that
the role of cultivating the next generation of human resources in the
regions can be fulfilled.
(c) Schools that emphasize education responding to internationalization.
Encouraging the disposition and abilities in children necessary to live
amid rapidly advancing internationalization is an extremely important
topic in education today. Around the axis of a viewpoint that emphasizes
education responding to internationalization, over a 6-year period,
while taking ample time and aiming to enrich foreign language education
in, for instance, measures for developing communication ability, building
in overseas study programs, and with educational activities in various
settings, working in international exchange activities such as getting
together with students from abroad and foreign people in the regions,
establishing elective subjects relating to education for international
understanding, and having teaching that encourages rhetorical ability,
together with advancing guidance relating to deepening understanding
of Japanese tradition and culture, various innovations are hoped for.
(d) Schools that emphasize education responding to the information-oriented
society.
Encouraging the disposition and abilities in children necessary to live
in an information-oriented society is an extremely important topic in
education today. Around the axis of a viewpoint that emphasizes education
responding to the growth of information, using sufficient time over
a 6-year period, it is hoped that educational activities will be worked
in constructively such as making use of information networks including
the internet, systematically cultivating information literacy, and having
children solidly learn information morals.
(e) Schools that emphasize learning related to the environment.
Learning related to the environment is also an area that will gain further
importance in future education, and with systematic guidance over a
6-year period, it is thought that greater results can be obtained. Around
the axis of a viewpoint that emphasizes learning related to the environment,
over a 6-year period, amid a school life with "room to grow",
working in activities for experiencing nature, such as roaming hill
and dale and coming into direct contact with and observing plants, animals,
and natural phenomena, it is hoped that a heart that cherishes nature
and the environment and the disposition and abilities to become involved
independently in environmental problems can be effectively cultivated.
.
(f) Schools that emphasize education to carry on tradition and culture.
Amid the development of internationalization, it is becoming more and
more important to transmit and develop Japanese traditional culture,
which has been handed down uninterruptedly from the past. However, the
regions face problems such as insufficient understanding of traditional
culture and a lack of successors to carry it on. Around the axis of
a viewpoint that emphasizes education that aims for this succession
and the deepening of understanding of traditional culture, over a 6-year
period, it is thought that educational activities can be developed with
hands-on activities constructively worked in, traditional arts and crafts
and traditional manufacturing techniques passed on, and performing arts
skills taught. In these ways, it is hoped that not only can understanding
of traditional culture be widened, this can be tied to the cultivating
of successors to traditional culture and specialized techniques for
distinctive local manufactures.
(g) Schools that respond to the wishes of some children to learn at
a tranquil pace.
There is a tendency for the image to be held of unified secondary education
as being to advance efficient learning, but rather, it is thought that
it is an effective model for responding to the wishes of some children
to learn at a tranquil pace, at a pace appropriate to themselves, while
undergoing trial and error. In other words, it is hoped that under unified
secondary education, that it will be possible to grasp the state of
learning of these kinds of children continuously over a 6-year period,
and establish a very detailed educational plan for each student, and
guide children. Through the constructive working in of the various above-mentioned
hands-on activities over 6 years, it is also hoped that their interests
and desires, which must be referred to as the motive source of learning,
can be drawn out.
Moreover, it is also thought that in cases where, hypothetically, a
setback should arise in terms of learning, a setback encountered, for
example, at the lower secondary level could be precisely grasped, and
with close coordination among teaching staff, over those 6 years children
can be made to soundly learn the basic essentials, and the problem overcome.
Amid a school life with "room to grow" over a 6-year period,
it is hoped that these children can be faced with determination, and
without unseemly haste, problems solved over time.
It is thought that unified secondary schools with this kind of thorough
guidance to respond to the wishes of some children to learn at a tranquil
pace as a distinctive characteristic would also be good.
(iv) Selection methods for determining entrants
With the introduction of unified secondary education, that which is
most feared may be that due to the model for the method of determining
entrants, a shifting to lower age levels of examination competition
might be invited. It has been pointed out that at present, at some national
and private lower secondary schools where unified secondary education
is actually being carried out, the selection for entry is spurring a
shift in examination competition to lower age levels.
From now on, in advancing unified secondary education, it is indispensable
that careful consideration be given such that there is no invitation
to shifting examination competition to lower age levels, with elementary
school students, who ought to be experiencing a school life with "room
to grow", attending juku for examination preparation. It is thought
desirable that schools not carry out selection via purposelessly difficult
examination questions, but determine entrants via appropriate methods
which correspond to the schools' individuality and distinctive characteristics.
Especially for schools established by regional public bodies, academic
examinations should not take place, even when it is necessary to select
from among a large number of applicants, and in keeping with the individuality
and distinctive characteristics of unified secondary schools, where
various trial and error is undergone and experiences accumulated, it
is thought appropriate that entrants be determined by a suitable combination
of lotteries and interviews, recommendations from elementary schools,
reports from students' previous schools, and practical tests, etc. For
example, it is thought that schools that emphasize learning activities
such as experiences of nature or volunteer activities, etc., should
carry out observation and experiments, and schools that carry out specialized
education such as vocational education, fine arts, or physical education,
etc., should carry out practical tests appropriate to each.
At some national and private lower secondary schools, a situation has
arisen where at presents a selection for entry that overemphasizes academic
examinations and the posing of questions which deviate from the purpose
of elementary education are being carried out, and due to these entrance
examinations, a shift of examination competition to lower age levels,
centered on the cities, is advancing, and in especially egregious cases,
even children in the lower grades of elementary school attend juku,
and are driven to study for entrance examinations. This sort of thing,
when considering the level of development of these children, is extremely
problematic, and from the point of view of not inviting a shift in examination
competition to lower age levels, we strongly request that the national
and private lower secondary schools involved urgently improve their
entrance examinations.
(v) Consideration for school entrance and leaving at the time of moving
up to the upper secondary school level
Next, how must we consider school entrance and leaving at the time of
moving up to the upper secondary school level? It goes without saying
that in cases where unified secondary education is introduced, since
the various benefits arise from unified secondary education being carried
out continuously over a 6-year period, that the norm will be for students
in schools where such education is carried out to remain on the rolls
throughout. However, from the point of view of moving to a more flexible
system of upper secondary education overall, it is important that the
necessary consideration be given at the time of moving up to the upper
secondary school level. In other words, the necessary consideration
must be given for students who wish to change the course of their study
and move to a different school, and from the point of view of making
schools more lively, it is also necessary to give sufficient consideration
to recognizing a certain number of persons for admission at the upper
secondary school level. As well, since unified secondary education is
being introduced under the 9-year system of compulsory education, in
the case of 6-year schools, it is natural that persons who have completed
the 3rd year must be given the same status as those who have graduated
from lower secondary schools.
Beyond this, there are some points that must be considered with regard
to the introduction of unified secondary education. The fear that since
student groups will tend to calcify with the same members over time,
some students might feel excluded from school life, was pointed out
earlier as a problem area, and we request that in order to mitigate
this problem, sufficient consideration be given to students who wish
to change schools during the course of their studies. At the same time
as this problem, it has also been pointed out that it might be difficult
to run a school that covers a wide range of students in terms of their
emotional and physical development. In order to solve this problem as
much as possible, in terms of daily guidance and school management,
it is necessary that close coordination be carried out between teaching
staff at both the lower secondary and upper secondary levels, and that
detailed consideration be given. In particular, while carrying out teaching
that responds to the differences in students' different levels of development,
various innovations are requested to develop activities for students
of mixed-age groups, which are meaningful in terms of cultivating sociability
and a rich sense of humanity.
Chapter 4 Exceptional Educational Measures
(1) Various measures for an education which responds to individual abilities
and aptitudes and consideration for children who are behind in learning
As discussed in chapter 1, through education children learn the basic
essentials needed to live in society, uncover their individuality, and
choose a way of life suitable to themselves; aiming for that growth
while respecting the uniquely precious individuality of each person,
is the fundamental way of thinking about education. In education from
now on, the further development of education that responds to individuals'
abilities and aptitudes, based on the idea of respect for individuality,
will be requested.
In Japanese education until now, in order to secure equality of opportunity
in education and educational standards, there has been a tendency for
too strong an emphasis to be placed on equality. Equality remains as
important an aim as ever, but at the same time, there has been the tendency
to overemphasize equality, and measures from the standpoint of advancing
an education that responds to individuals' abilities and aptitudes may
not necessarily have been sufficient, and based on this point of view
it is necessary to advance improvements.
In particular, in education until now, with formal equality overemphasized,
the tendency to give uniform teaching to every single child has been
strong, but even if teaching content and methods vary in response to
children's level of development, through teaching that responds to the
individual such as teaching that corresponds to levels of proficiency,
it is thought that each child can definitely master the necessary learning
content; extending these abilities is important, as well as educational.
When considering this, first what is important is that children's abilities
and aptitudes are varied, and that there are differences in the teaching
methods appropriate to, and the degree of understanding of each child.
It is necessary that teaching staff, parents, and society as a whole
recognize this. And then, there are times when children will pause,
or look for a different route, and it is necessary for them to have
true "zest for living" given to them, and for them to be supported
and watched over. With the advance of an education that responds to
individuals' abilities and aptitudes, it is important to give sufficient
consideration to children who need this kind of tranquil runway time.
In light of this, up until this point as well, for children who are
behind in learning, while accurately grasping the reasons for setbacks
in the course of learning and conditions for each child, teaching has
been carried out with improvements and innovations in teaching methods
responding to the individual, and appropriate to the conditions of the
particular child. These include individual instruction and supplementary
learning, team teaching, instruction that corresponds to levels of proficiency,
innovations in and development of teaching materials, and the use of
multimedia. From now on, together with further advancing these kinds
of measures and respecting each child's individuality, it is necessary
to work to give appropriate support to sufficiently draw out the latent
potential of each child.
In providing guidance to these kinds of children, not only should degree
of understanding and speed of attainment be grasped in terms of formal
matters, but the intentions of the children and parents should be respected,
and innovations in teaching with goals appropriate to each child's conditions,
and the formulation of teaching plans should also be carried out. At
the same time, particularly in order to rouse children's desire, learning
content should be related to familiar phenomena, hands-on learning should
be emphasized, and individual instruction should be carried out. That
is, it is important that consideration be given to constructing an environment
such that learning is fun, with a feeling of familiarity vis a vis learning
content and children being allowed to taste feelings of success and
achievement toward learning.
This sort of innovation and improvement is advanced through the creativity
and innovations of individual teaching staff and schools, but it is
extremely important that the government constructively support these
sorts of measures. From this point of view, it is important to further
advance a teaching that responds to the individual, which extends individual
strength. It would be meaningful to compile teaching materials such
as a collection of examples actually implemented, covering effective
methods of utilization of teaching materials and innovations and improvements
in various teaching methods at schools, and provide them to each school.
Moreover, when enlarging the breadth of options for the register at
lower secondary and upper secondary schools, when teaching from the
option register, it is thought constructive consideration should be
given to advancing measures such as allowing learning at a tranquil
pace or repeated learning in order to deepen understanding of basic,
fundamental content, for example, the re-learning of content already
learned once in order to deepen understanding.
And at schools, with the formation of a concrete curriculum, at the
same time as giving considerations to the above-mentioned aims, consideration
must be given in the teaching curriculum and school management to making
it possible for individual instruction and supplementary instruction
to be carried out further.
In the 1st report submitted in July of last year, in order to advance
an education that makes full use of each person's individuality, we
already proposed further improvement in teaching methods that respond
to children's level of development, including team teaching, group learning,
and individual learning. We also proposed that at the elementary, lower
secondary, and upper secondary school levels, learning the basic essentials
is important, but at the same time it is necessary to aim to diversify
educational content, to respond to diversification in individuals' abilities,
aptitudes and interests. This includes expanding the breath of options
for the register at the lower secondary school level, decreasing the
content and number of credits for compulsory courses and subjects and
expanding the number of elective courses and subjects at the upper secondary
school level, and further utilizing the system of recognizing credits
for learning achievements at other upper secondary schools and special
training colleges.
Executing these proposals, and advancing education that responds to
individuals' abilities and individuality is, firstly, more important
than anything else, and it is extremely important to further advance
diversification of educational content and methods at each level of
schooling.
It is important to advance these measures, but for persons possessing
exceptional abilities in specified areas, it cannot necessarily be said
that these measures within each level of schooling alone are sufficient
in order to expand this talent and draw out these persons' individuality
to the fullest.
In education in Japan until now, with the excessive value put on formal
equality, there has been the tendency not to sufficiently raise rare
talent, and from now on, in each domain, it is necessary to advance
measures and shift from the idea of "Everyone together and equal"
to a way of thinking that states "Contents, methods and approaches
that respond to each person's individuality and abilities".
Especially after the completion of compulsory education, at upper secondary
schools and beyond, where differences in students' abilities and aptitudes
become greater, varied measures are strongly requested, and from the
point of view of expanding children's talents and drawing out their
individuality to the fullest, measures should not stop with upper secondary
education, but responding to each student's individuality and abilities
and aiming for appropriate articulation with university level education
is thought to be an important topic.
Further, having individuals' varied abilities blossom, and cultivating
creativity and originality, from various angles, including economics,
and science and technology, is a topic where constructive measures are
requested, from the point of view also of Japan developing its own new
frontiers and contributing to international society,.
Taking this point of view into account, we went so far as to deliberate
on the propriety of upper secondary school students receiving university
level education, and further, beyond the framework of the current system,
of recognizing persons under the age of 18 for entrance to university.
(2) Providing more substantial and varied educational opportunities
for students with exceptional abilities or desires in specified areas
Giving opportunities for university level education on an exceptional
basis to upper secondary school students who possess exceptional ability
in specified areas has already been deliberated by the 14th Central
Council for Education, where it was reported that it is desirable to
provide opportunities to come into contact with university level education
and research in specified areas such as mathematics and physics. Taking
into account this report, from the 1994 academic year, through universities,
private bodies and others, covering students at the upper secondary
school level, pilot projects have been carried out to offer university
level education (in the form of acceptance of persons as special register
students, extension courses, and seminars) in the areas of mathematics
and physics.
Approximately 1000 upper secondary school level students have participated
in these pilot projects each year. Participants overall, with their
interests, come into contact with university level education, and feel
the joy of fresh thoughts and impressions, and the joy of discovery,
and it has been reported that the pilot projects have become a great
opportunity to extend talent.
Taking into account the success of the pilot projects, for upper secondary
school students who possess sufficient ability and desire to receive
university level education, opportunities to come into contact with
the high level education and research of the university level should
be provided more widely; aiming to heighten students' interests and
expand their ability, and as part of advancing an education that responds
to individuals' abilities and individuality, is thought to possess great
significance. Regarding effective areas for receiving education provided
by universities, in light of this, it is desirable that opportunities
to come into contact with university level education and research be
not only in the areas of mathematics and physics, but be widely provided.
To this end, from now on through universities, private bodies and others,
it is important to expand this type of learning opportunity, not only
through pilot projects, but through widely stimulating independent measures.
As part of advancing these measures, in order to make it possible for
upper secondary school students to obtain opportunities to come into
contact with university level education and research irrespective of
geographical and other conditions, from now on, at universities, etc.,
it would be good, amid aims to utilize multimedia and the internet,
etc., to make profitable use of these. Also, by making use of the University
of the Air, which will soon be beginning nationwide coverage via communications
satellite, upper secondary school students will be able to come into
contact with university level education and research that responds to
individual interests, irrespective of geographical and other conditions,
which is thought to be significant.
For upper secondary school students to be able to come into contact
with various learning opportunities outside the school, including this
sort of university learning opportunity, is significant, and opening
up the path to the granting of credits when students have undergone
this sort of learning, through measures at upper secondary schools,
must be discussed constructively. This has already been pointed out
in the 1st report from the point of view of aiming to diversify educational
content, but from the point of view of aiming to extend students' abilities
as well, we would like to propose again more constructive measures.
Further, from the point of view of diversifying and rendering more flexible
upper secondary education, inviting university teaching staff, etc.,
to conduct lectures, and establishing opportunities to come into contact
with high level education and research outside of class time, can be
considered in a portion of the upper secondary school curriculum, and
in keeping with the conditions of students and the regions, through
coordination between universities and upper secondary schools, it would
be good to advance these sorts of measures. Also, at upper secondary
schools, in order to make full use of the purpose of the adoption of
the credit system, it would be good to give consideration in terms of
the educational curriculum to, for example, at each school, for students
who have exceptional abilities and desires in specified areas, to be
able to take courses and subjects early that are normally studied in
the upper grades; such consideration in the curriculum can be considered.
At the same time as advancing the above measures in order to extend
the talents in specified areas of students who possess exceptional abilities
and desires, in selection for entry to universities, it is important
to evaluate these abilities appropriately. Measures for improvement
in the selection for entry to universities were discussed in section
2 of chapter 2, but as part of improvement directed at diversification
of selection methods and using diversified assessment criteria, for
example, on the judgement of each university, for a part of the quota,
having attention turned to students' abilities and desires, etc., in
specified areas, and advancing measures to grant admission based on
evaluations of learning in specified courses and subjects and on recommendation,
is thought to be desirable in terms of advancing education that emphasizes
individuality and responds to individual abilities and individuality.
(3) Exceptions to the university admission age
(i) Basic way of thinking
Further still, regarding students possessing exceptional abilities and
desires in specified fields, especially for students possessing rare
talent to the extent that as handled under the framework of the current
school system, this talent and individuality cannot be sufficiently
brought to bear, we took into account the report of the 14th Central
Council for Education, which stated "Relating to mathematics, it
is desirable that the relaxing of age limits for entry to university
be implemented experimentally", and carried out concentrated deliberations
relating to recognizing qualifications for their entry to university,
as an exception, even if under 18 years of age.
Already, for entry to graduate school from university, depending on
the field, for students possessing exceptional gifts as researchers,
due to it being thought that implementing graduate education earlier
would be more effective, the system was revised in 1989 to allow for
entry to graduate school after 3 years in an undergraduate program ,
for those with outstanding achievements having completed a certain number
of credits as determined by each graduate school. Under this system,
by 1996 approximately 750 students had been accepted to graduate school,
and among these, there are many persons who have begun active careers
in various areas, as researchers for instance.
However, in the case of entry from the upper secondary school level
to university, under the current system, those possessing the qualification
to enter university are those who have graduated from upper secondary
school, or those who are recognized by the Minister of Education, Science,
Sports, and Culture as having equivalent or greater academic ability.
In Japan, due to reaching the age of 18 being a precondition for graduating
from upper secondary school, the entry to university of persons under
18 years of age is not recognized.
Abroad, in general, based on the idea that appropriate education must
be carried out in response to individual abilities and aptitudes, there
are many countries whose systems recognize entry to university early
for persons with ability of striking heights. For example, in the case
of the United States, the prerequisite for entry to university is normally
the completion of secondary education, but in cases such as early graduation
from high school due to having skipped grades, or cases where special
recognition is granted by the university even without high school graduation,
entry earlier than the normal entry age is possible. In France the qualification
for taking the Baccalaureat, the qualification examination for entry
to university, is normally 17 years of age, but in cases where recognized
by the head of a university district (a regional unit of educational
administration comprising several departements), it is possible for
the examination to be taken earlier. In Britain, the age for entry to
university is determined by the individual universities themselves.
In general, the minimum age for entry is age 17 or 18, but for younger
persons, exceptional acceptance is possible for those who display particularly
exceptional talent. In the case of China, in an extremely small number
of universities, youth classes have been established, with young persons
aged 15 and under entering, and being educated with the same content
as regular university students. And in other countries, including Germany
and Russia, entry to university at below the normal age is recognized
for those with ability of striking heights.
In this way, although methods of implementation are different in each
country, and actually, large numbers of students are not necessarily
admitted to enter universities at below the normal age, the system is
such that a flexible response is possible in order to carry out appropriate
education for those with ability of striking heights.
While keeping these sorts of responses in various foreign countries
sufficiently in view, we advanced deliberations on how to carry out
exceptional educational measures for persons possessing rare ability
in Japan.
When taking into account the situation in foreign countries and the
state of implementation of the pilot projects mentioned above, it is
thought that in Japan, measures contained in the current system alone
are insufficient for the extremely small number of persons who possess
rare talent. Thus to proceed further from the point of view of responding
to ability and aptitudes, further extending talent, and drawing out
individuality to its fullest, the current uniform handling in the school
system should be made flexible, and it is thought appropriate that the
system be reformed so that persons who possess rare talent in specified
areas, even if under the age of 18, can be recognized as being qualified
for entry to university as an exceptional educational measure.
This sort of systemic reform would establish exceptions to the school
system in Japan as it has existed until now where there has been a fundamental
correspondence between a certain age and grade in school, and taking
into account the situation in foreign countries and the state of implementation
of the pilot projects mentioned above, deliberations were carried out
in hearings and other forms. In proposing these exceptional educational
measures, securing equality of opportunity in education is important,
but we became newly aware of the necessity of emphasizing not formal
equality but the carrying out of an education that responds to individual
abilities and aptitudes, and at the same time, of changing values in
Japan that put excessive weight on a person's age.
Under this kind of thinking, we furthered deliberations on concrete
areas and persons to be covered, methods of acceptance, etc.
Of course, as discussed below, the system of recognizing qualification
for entry to university as an exceptional educational measure is not
for the so-called "examination elite". It is to cover persons
who possess rare talent in specified fields, and conceived of in such
a way as to not extend any influence on examination competition. But
with regard to its implementation, an important precondition must be
that it not exacerbate examination competition, in that it is indispensable
that the following points be given particular attention.
(a) That these measures not be used simply as a way of entering university
only.
(b) That they not be used to expand the opportunities of the so-called
"examination elite" to be accepted by famous universities.
(c) On the university side, that these are not to be used for the poaching
of excellent students while they are young.
(ii) Fields covered
Rare talent is not confined to the intellectual domain, but flowers
and is displayed in many fields, including sensibility and physical
strength. Moreover, while this talent may be discovered and flower at
a relatively early stage, it may also bloom late and be difficult to
uncover. And discovering and extending that talent may in some cases
be most appropriate as part of school education, and in others most
appropriate outside of school education.
We considered that those fields where rare talent is relatively easy
to discover, and where talent develops at a relatively early age are
the fields of mathematics and physics, the field of arts, and the field
of sports, among others.
Of these, with regard to the fields of arts and sports, the role to
be filled by school education has always been important, but there are
places where these talents can be extended and brought to bear outside
of school education, and in fact, these are fields where talent is discovered
and extended at quite an early stage, and the issue of articulation
between universities and upper secondary schools, in aiming to extend
these talents, is not necessarily a large one.
In contrast, it is difficult to extend rare talent in the fields of
mathematics and physics outside of school education, and these are fields
where it is necessary to extend talent in connection with school education.
Also, in these fields, the period from upper secondary school to university
is a crucial period for discovering the buds of these talents, and having
them sprout. What is more, these fields have been covered in pilot projects
until now, and those where results have been reported. From this, it
is appropriate to limit the fields for now to mathematics and physics.
With regard to the fields of arts and sports, that these talents can
be extended in activities out of school is emphasized, and it is thought
that it is appropriate not to take special measures aiming to extend
rare talent in the area of school education, but in the future, expansion
of the fields covered may be considered, and taking into account the
state of implementation based on this report, it will be necessary to
deliberate on this point. And for example, if in the fields of arts
and sports, time is required for special activities to extend talent,
at the upper secondary school level, on the judgement of each school,
it is necessary to aim for flexible employment of the curriculum to
enable special consideration for methods of registering subjects.
(iii) Persons covered
The persons who possess rare talent to be covered are, persons who possess
what is referred to as innate talent, persons who for instance raise
surprisingly novel ideas and creative ways of thinking, who possess
a talent that bursts out in some field, and for whom it is desirable
that appropriate guidance be received at an early stage from specialists,
that is, persons possessing the potential to open up new frontiers of
knowledge in the future. As such, these sorts of persons are of course
not those who obtain high scores on average in all areas, or the so-called
"examination elite" who excel in examination techniques. These
are not persons who simply have excellent results in the specified subjects
on school examinations, such that some would be found in every school;
it is thought that even seen on a national scale, these persons are
extremely limited in number. As well, it is necessary to consider persons
whom it is thought it would be desirable be involved in high level research
activities and such in the future, and should have their rare talent
further extend through high level, specialized guidance in universities
and graduate schools. Also, in order to avoid exacerbating examination
competition, this should not be a broad, general system, but must cover
an extremely small number of persons.
With regard to age, the way of thinking is possible such that if the
person has completed compulsory education, no special limit should be
imposed, but in Japanese universities, since only persons aged 18 years
and over have been admitted over these many years, if entry is recognized
too early, it might be feared that an inappropriate influence could
be extended on that student's overall character development, and there
are also fears on the university side, such as whether appropriate guidance
suitable to students' degree of maturity can be provided or not. Thus,
considering the areas of students' overall character development and
their smooth adaptation to university life after entry, for the time
being, it is appropriate that persons covered be those who are aged
17 years and older and who have been in upper secondary school for 2
years or more.
With regard to recognition only one year early, as discussed previously,
in moving on early to graduate school from an undergraduate program,
this too is recognized one year early, from the time of completion of
the third year in the undergraduate program. But on this occasion, although
only 1 year early, this is of course seen as extremely desirable by
the person in question, and also by surrounding students. That this
effect is extremely great, and that consideration for children's level
of development is necessary, etc. has resulted in this overall judgement.
In the future, making, for example, the age limit 16 years and over
can be considered, and taking into account the state of implementation
based on this report, it will be necessary to deliberate on this point.
In cases where early entry to university is recognized, the student
moves on to university at the time of having completed 2 years of upper
secondary school, meaning that the student has left upper secondary
school during the course of study. It is possible that the child's educational
path, due to various circumstances, might change after entry to university,
resulting in quitting university partway through. In such a case, the
person's academic history would end up with graduation from lower secondary
school, and the person would be harmed in ways including that being
a graduate of upper secondary school is a qualification required to
take qualification examinations. It is necessary that consideration
be given so that students are given the same treatment as upper secondary
school graduates, so that in cases such as this they are not harmed.
(iv) Acceptance methods
On whether persons possessing rare ability should enter university early
or not, it is natural that this be voluntary, with the person in question
being responsible for themselves as a given. However, making a clear
judgement as to whether a child possesses rare talent or not is not
that simple. In order to uncover the talent of these sorts of children,
while working to unearth persons to be covered through extension courses
and the acceptance of special register students at universities, and
through the coordination of persons concerned with universities and
persons concerned with upper secondary schools, as well as related bodies,
etc., it is necessary to respond by making reference to children's daily
learning conditions and participation in educational activities such
as various contests. Regarding acceptance methods, it is appropriate
that selection methods based on normal academic examinations not be
taken, but be based on recommendation, etc., and at the universities,
careful screening be carried out based on various materials.
It is thought that it would be difficult for the judgement of which
persons possess rare talent requiring recommendation to be carried out
by persons concerned with upper secondary schools alone. Thus, it would
be good to consider various methods, including upper secondary schools
making recommendations with the cooperation of outside specialists and
other persons, or in certain cases, where a researcher or such person
has given guidance to a student possessing exceptional talent participating
in a pilot project or contest, this person could report to or give counsel
to the upper secondary school where the student studies, with the upper
secondary school receiving this counsel making the recommendation, or
indeed, the researcher or such person could report directly to the university.
The university receiving this sort of recommendation or report would
then have to consider whether or not to accept the student, after constructive
exchange of opinions with the upper secondary school concerned, regarding
the student's abilities and aptitudes.
The reason for rooting entry in a careful screening based on recommendation,
etc., is that for uncovering the extremely small number of persons possessing
rare talent, the current selection based on academic examinations is
not appropriate, and also, that carrying out a selection based on academic
examinations is feared would further exacerbate current examination
competition. In this sense, this reform to the system is not in order
to have early entry for persons who produce high scores irrespective
of subjects on academic examinations, that is, the so-called "examination
elite". It is a measure to grant entry to persons possessing rare
talent, which is feared could get buried if selection is based on academic
examinations.
(v) Conditions for the accepting university and the handling of students
after entry
The decision on whether to implement early admission must be left to
the independent judgement and common sense of each university. However,
in order to extend rare talent after entry, it is thought necessary
that the accepting university fulfill certain conditions such as at
least having a doctoral program for the fields covered by the exceptional
educational measures, and carrying out high level educational research
activities.
Regarding the handling of students after entry to university in cases
where their early entry has been recognized, this is a problem that
each university is responsible for dealing with, including whether to
give consideration to the curriculum, but in order to further extend
the talent of persons who possess rare talent, it is necessary to give
a certain consideration to enriching register guidance, etc. In this
respect, for example, academic advisors could be available, for extending
exceptional talent in specified fields, and it is thought that at the
same time consideration could be given to the person's overall character
development including the provision of counsel such that the student's
register is balanced and not skewed toward one specialized field, and
guidance activities on overall student life. Also, to respond to cases
where due to circumstances, unavoidably, students wish to change their
course of study after entry, consideration should be given so that other
departments or courses can be moved to flexibly.
Further, while carrying out innovations for receiving graduate level
teaching early, based on the university's judgement it is desirable
that consideration be given to measures, depending on ability, for entering
graduate school after completing 3 years of university.
(vi) Concrete methods of implementation
Taking into account the above, regarding concrete implementation methods
such as selection methods at the accepting universities, fundamentally
this should be left to universities to deal with independently, where
it is desirable that each university draw up independent guidelines,
the state of their implementation (selection methods, educational research
system of accepting departments and courses, etc.) be made public constructively,
as part of self-evaluations relating to educational research activities,
and external evaluation accepted. At the same time, various innovations
are requested, through persons concerned with implementing universities,
persons concerned with upper secondary schools, persons in academic
circles, knowledgeable persons, etc., establishing a forum for consultation
and exchanges of opinion on state of implementation, implementation
methods, etc., such that these measures do not uselessly fan examination
competition, or distort the original purpose of school education.
(vii) Concerning the skipping of grades
In deliberations relating to exceptional educational measures, we debated
on the propriety of introducing the skipping of grades, that is, jumping
over an academic year at any school level, at elementary, lower secondary
and upper secondary schools.
But at this point in time, the fear is strong that the skipping of grades
would be used to raise the so-called "examination elite",
that it would invite meaningless stress among parents, and exacerbate
examination competition. Moreover, due to fears that various problems
would be caused by the existence of skipping grades in schools in terms
of children's psychological state, it is thought that it would be difficult
to gain a social consensus, and we consider it appropriate that the
skipping of grades not occur during compulsory education at elementary
and lower secondary schools. Due to similar problems in upper secondary
schools were an academic year jumped over, here too the skipping of
grades is considered inappropriate.
Of course, in order to carry out an education that responds to individual
abilities and aptitudes, at each school level, it is important to work
for the diversification of educational content and methods. In particular,
at lower secondary and upper secondary schools, it is necessary for
teaching to be carried out that responds to the individual such as teaching
that corresponds to levels of proficiency, and the breadth of options
for the register to be enlarged. Moreover, at upper secondary schools,
it has become possible to disregard the grade system, and making further
use of this type of system is also meaningful.
Chapter 5 The model for education in response to an aging society
This council, in the 1st report, proposed a basic way of thinking and
concrete measures, in deliberation centering on primary and secondary
education, on the model for education in response to such social changes
as internationalization, the growth of an information-oriented society,
the development of science and technology, and environmental problems.
The prospects for Japanese society in the 21st century include the serious,
inescapable problem of an aging society. Thus, we carried out deliberations,
in particular on the model for education for children at the primary
and secondary education level which responds to an aging society.
(1) The prospects for an aging society and the basic way of thinking
about education which responds to an aging society
(i) The prospects for an aging society
Since the end of the war, accompanying the raising of Japanese citizens'
standard of living through economic growth, and together with improvements
in standards of sanitation and progress in medicine and medical technology,
there has been a pronounced extension in average life-span in Japan,
making it the country with the longest life-spans in the world. Together
with this development of longer life-spans, there has been a rapid increase
in the population of old people. Observing the population of persons
aged 65 and over, there has been an increase from 4,110,000 people in
1950 to 18,260,000 people in 1995.
From now on in Japan, together with the development of longer life-spans,
the advance of the trend to fewer children through a declining birthrate
will cause a further increase in the number of old persons. According
to the intermediate projection of the National Institute of Population
and Social Security Research's "Population Projections for Japan:
1996-2100" (January, 1997), in the year 2006, the proportion of
old people (the proportion of
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