（6）Western Learning and the Development of Schools for Western Learning

The development and expansion of Western learning occurred quite rapidly during the middle decades of the last century and was influential in the modernization of education. A byproduct of this phenomenon was the establishment of numerous public and private schools devoted to the diffusion of Western learning, and many of these became institutions of middle level and higher education after the proclamation of the Education System Order.

Since from the early Edo period the Shogunate cut off all contact with the West except for a small Dutch trading port in Nagasaki, Western learning initially found its way into Japan by means of the Dutch language. With the opening of the port cities in 1858, however, considerable direct contact began to be made with various other countries of the West. The ensuing external pressure caused a need for information in other languages concerning national defense and diplomacy. Thus Western learning which had begun as Dutch Learning (Rangaku) had, by the end of the Shogunate, come to include English, French and German studies. Above all, it was English learning that became particularly important. The focus of Western learning shifted from medical science to technology and information having to do with national defense such as navigation, surveying, shipbuilding, and gunnery.

Amidst the tense situation which existed in the closing years of the Shogunate, the government strengthened research in Western learning. The Tenmongata, which had been founded in 1684 as a center for astronomical and calendrical research and which later conducted surveying, cartography and translation of Western languages as well as inquiries into foreign affairs and diplomacy, was the major governmental organ for Western learning. In addition in March, 1856, an institute for Western learning called Banshoshirabesho was founded in Edo under the auspices of the Shogunate as a new center for Western learning. The institute immediately invited applications from students and began classes in 1857.

The institute changed its name in 1862 to the Yoshoshirabesho and in 1863 to the Kaiseijo. Among those who joined its faculty and continued to be active even after the Meiji Restoration were Nishi Amane, Tsuda Mamichi, Murakami Hidetoshi, Kato Hiroyuki, Mitsukuri Rinsho, Kanda Takahira and Yanagawa Shunsan. Most of the faculty members originally specialized in Dutch Learning, but after the opening of the ports, English learning becam more prevalent. Although the Kaiseijo disappeared with the fall of the Shogunate, it was restored by the new Meiji government, and ultimately became a part of the University of Tokyo.

A comparable educational facility of the latter part of the Edo period was the Naval Training Institute (Kaigun Denshujo) at Nagasaki. Shortly after the arrival of Conmmodore Matthew C. Perry (1794-1858) of the United States Navy in 1853, the Shogunate, through its magistrate at Nagasaki, received a gift of a warship from the government of the Netherlands in 1855. It was on this occasion that a faculty was appointed and the Naval Training Institute was established for the purpose of teaching navigation, shipbuilding, and gunnery. The curriculum included Western mathematics, astronomy and geography, as well as the Dutch language, navigation, shipbuilding, gunnery, surveying, and engine mechanics. Dutch technologists and naval officers were appointed to its faculty. The first class of students was received in 1855 and the second two years thereafter, but operations were suspended in 1859. Although the Institute was short-lived it played an immensely important role for its time. Students came from various fiefs as well as from the government. Many graduates of this Institute became important leaders after the Meiji Restoration. Another important center for Western learning was the Warship Navigation Institute (Gunkan Sorenjo) founded in 1857 by the Shogunate within the Military Training Center (Kobusho) at Tsukiji in Edo.

As the Shogunate-sponsored medical institute emphasized traditional Chinese medical practice, the study of Western medicine developed primarily in privately operated schools. The first governmental institute of Western medicine evolved from an immunization center founded in 1858 at Kanda Otamagaike in Edo by Ito Genboku (1801-1871) and other scholars of Dutch Medicine (Ranpo Igaku). This center called the Shutokan came under the direct control of the central government in 1860 and renamed the Shutojo. It further was renamed the Institute of Western Medicine (Seiyo Igakujo) in 1861. In 1863 it was renamed the Igakujo, and it continued to the end of the Shogunate as the leading center for Western medicine. Following the Meiji Restoration it was reestablished by the new government and, with the Kaiseijo, formed the basis of Japan's first modern university.

Nagasaki was another center for Western medicine. Instruction in Western medicine had begun there under the direction of a Dutch military surgeon, Pompe v. Meerdervoort(1829-1908), who had arrived in Japan in 1857 with the party of Dutch instructors invited to teach at the Naval Training Institute. Pompe's instruction in medicine at this school formed the basis of the Institute for Medical Practice (Igaku Denshujo) and, in addition to medicine, it offered courses in chemistry, physics and physiology in the Dutch language. In 1861, on his application to the Shogunate a Western-style hospital called the Yojojo and a medical research center called the Igakujo were set up, which prospered with a large enrollment of students from various fiefs. In 1864, an Institute for Chemical and Physical Research Experimentation (Bunseki Kyurijo) was established. In 1865, the hospital, the medical research center and the chemical and physical research institute merged to form the Seitokukan, which came under the control of the prefectural government of Nagasaki following the Meiji Restoration and was renamed Nagasaki Prefectural Medical School (Nagasakifu Igakko). Eventually jurisdiction was transferred to the Department of Education (Monbusho) in 1871, and it was renamed Nagasaki Medical School (Nagasaki Igakko)

During the Edo period, Nagasaki was the gateway for Western culture (via Holland) into Japan and numerous scholars of Western civilization began their studies there. An English Language Institute (Eigo Denshujo) opened in 1858 and the Language Institute (Gogakujo) offered courses in such foreign languages as English, Dutch, French, Russian and Chinese from 1863 (and later Western mathematics was added to the curriculum.). Later it was redesignated the Seibikan and foreign teachers were appointed to the staff including Guido F. Verbeck (1830-1898). Many well-known figures who were active in the post-Restoration period studied there. After the Restoration it was transferred to the jurisdiction of the government of Nagasaki Prefecture and the name was changed to the Kounkan. In 1872 it was taken over by the Department of Education.

The outline above has discussed the main centers of Western learning under the auspices of the Tokugawa government in places of its direct jurisdiction such as Edo and Nagasaki, but it should be mentioned that by the close of the Edo period and during the early Restoration days many fiefs took it upon themselves to develop their own facilities for training in Western learning. In some instances, the motive was simply curiosity whereas more often it was a desire to learn about Western military strategy and technology.

Many private schools for Western learning also developed at this period. The most important private schools of Dutch Medicine were the Shosendo of Ito Genboku at Edo and the Tekijuku of Ogata Koan (1810-1863) at Osaka. The original objective of these private schools was to teach Dutch Medicine, but they also gave instruction in the Dutch language. There were other private schools which specialized in Western science and technology such as Kondo Makoto's Kogyokujuku.

In short, during the latter part of the Edo period institutions for Western learning were developed firstly by the Shogunate at places of its direct jurisdiction such as Edo and Nagasaki.Secondly they were founded by many enlightened fief lords in their respective fiefs. Thirdly a large number of private schools for Western learning came into being. Thus preparations for modern education had already begun during the Edo period, and these greatly facilitated educational reform after the Restoration.