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Home > Policy > White Paper, Notice, Announcement > White Paper > WHITE PAPER ON SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY2003 > Part1 1.3 1.3.1 1.3.1.2

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Part1 Human Resources in Science and Technology Required of Japan in the Future
1.3 How Human Resources in Science and Technology Should be Fostered and Secured
1.3.1 Construction of an Environment for Scienceand Technology Activities Attracting Excellent Personnel and In-spiring them to Displaytheir Creativity
1.3.1.2 Expansion of Opportunities for Women,Aged,etc.to Play an Active Part in Research


  With Japan rapidly turning into an aging society with few children,the need to maintain a steady supply of qualified human resources will mean increased opportunities for groups in society that have not always been able to fully participate in the past.This section examines the conditions for women,elderly,and foreign researchers.

(1)Women Researchers (The Number and the Percentage of Women Re-searchers in Japan)

  While the number of women researchers shot up after implementation of the Equal Employment Opportunity Law between Men and Women in1986,it has shown signs of leveling off in the last two or three years.

  By research body(sector),the proportion of women researchers is particularly high at universities,and the proportion continues to rise.In companies,etc.,the proportion began rising fast in the latter1980s,but then leveled off in recent years,with the absolute numbers remaining at a low level,or just one-third of the total researchers at universities (Figure1-3-8) .

Figure1-3-8Degree of satisfaction with treatment of researchers

  By way of comparison,the proportion of women among all employed people rose between1980and2001from33.7%to40.3%.

  So while the number of women researchers has been increasing,the total number cannot be considered very high,especially when contrasted alongside the40.3%proportion for women among all employed people.

(Higher Education in the Natural Sciences)

  One reason that is often pointed out for the low number of women researchers is unfairness in hir-ing when women go looking for employment after graduation from university or graduate school (Figure1-3-9) .

Figure1-3-9 Sense of unfairness for women in hiring,promotion,and evaluations

  In the natural sciences(science,engineering,agricultural science,and health),however,there is little difference between men and women at the doctorate level in the proportion of graduates hired as university instructors or science researchers.At the Master's Degree level,in fact,a higher proportion of women holding the degree are hired than men (Figure1-3-10) .From the proportions hired,therefore,it would appear that the low number of women researchers at universities and research institutions is not so much due to hiring practices as to the low number of women studying in the natural sciences in the first place( Figure1-3-11 ).

  On the other hand,a look at technicians in private-sector enterprises,which include many researchers,shows a higher rate of hiring for men no matter what the science curriculum,raising the likelihood that the low numbers of women researchers at private-sector enterprises could well be a hiring issue.

  The next question,then,is why so few women advance into the natural sciences.In a survey targeting the academic skills and awareness of students in the upper grades of elementary school(fifth and sixth grade)and of lower secondary school students,a paper test administered to students in the fifth grade of elementary school and third grade of lower secondary school revealed virtually no differences between boys and girls (Table1-3-12) .While there was also little difference between boys and girls in their awareness of the importance and necessity of science,a relatively large gender gap appeared over how much they like science and how likely they intend to pursue a career in science in the future,with girls exhibiting a tendency to be disinterested in science and mathematics (Figure1-3-13) .

Figure1-3-10Proportion of hires after graduation from natural science curriculums, by career type

Figure1-3-11Number of graduates by curriculum and department

Table1-3-12Gender comparisons of elementary and lower secondary school student paper test performances(average scores)in science and mathematics

Figure1-3-13Study awareness in elementary and lower secondary school students (science and mathematics)

  An awareness survey targeting lower secondary school students revealed a gap in awareness between boys and girls in what they believe teachers and parents expect of them regarding performance and progress in science.This perception of what other people think is probably one reason why girls tend to be disinterested in the natural sciences (Figure1-3-14) .

Figure1-3-14Awareness of what other people think about studying science (second grade of lower secondary school)

Figure1-3-15Proportion of women securing academic levels,by specialty field(2000)

  While it is true that an international comparison of academic levels shows that the proportion of women specializing in natural science fields is lower in Japan than in other countries,the proportion of women is equally low for the social sciences,with the exception of cultural science,where Japan stands at about the same level as other countries (Figure1-3-15) .This data would appear to show that the low proportion of women in the natural sciences may not be due only to an awareness issue regarding science and technology.

(Comfortable Environment for Women Re-searchers)

  Aside from the small number of women students in the natural sciences,other reasons given by women themselves for why there are so few women researchers include"difficult to continue researches because of childbirth and child care,etc."and"environment is not ready to receive women researcher."As a result,another reason is that women who have succeeded in becoming a researcher end up quitting again because the environment is not conducive for continuing to do research (Figure1-3-16) .

Figure1-3-16Reasons for the low numbers of women researchers(top three items)

  Regarding the environment surrounding women researchers,a comparison of two questionnaires,inquiring about the reasons why there are so few women researchers and about a better working environment for women researchers,targeting researchers in FY1997 and FY2002 shows that the percentage of men pointing out that the environment is not ready to receive women researchers remained unchanged.At the same time the percentage of women making such indications declined.In actuality,however,where the percentage of men asserting that childbirth and childrearing,etc.,make it difficult to continue doing research declined,the percentage of women making such assertions did not decline.So while some progress has been made in systemic development,many women still have difficulty in practice with continuing their research work.Moreover,there also appears to be a difference in awareness between men and women regarding why there are so few women researchers.Where men believe that the main reason lies in the supply of women in the sciences coming out of universities and colleges,women say that the reason lies with the environment surrounding the women researchers,and not with the supply.

  On the question of a better working environment for women researchers,the FY1997 and FY2002 questionnaires were not directly comparable because the answer choices had changed.However,the number of women who called for work schedules that allow for childrearing time,working from home,and flextime,etc.,fell,but the number of women who called for re-employment programs increased (Figure1-3-17) .

Figure1-3-17Comfortable environment for women researchers

  In order to boost the number of women researchers,it is important to first reduce the number of women who cannot continue doing research,by improving the working environment for women researchers.Increasing the number of women is linked closely to establishment of the woman researcher as role models,which should result in increasing numbers of women entering natural science departments at universities and graduate schools.

(Women in Human Resources for Science and Technology Overall)

  While the discussion so far has looked at researchers,a look at the percentage of people wanting to change occupations in the Ministry of Public Management,Home Affairs,Posts and Telecommunication's"Labor Force Survey"reveals that relatively few of all workers in professional and technological occupation(4.05million women),which includes researchers,want to change occupations,hinting that there are many types of careers that offer easy working environments for women.For the many technicians who work at private-sector enterprises,however(including agricultural,forestry,fisheries,and food-processing technicians,machinery and electrical engineers,mining industry engineers,construction,civil engineering,and surveying engineers,information processing technicians,and others,for a total of200,000women),15.0%of women have expressed a desire to change occupations,more than three times higher than the4.3%of teachers(including university professors,totaling700,000women)wanting a change (Figure1-3-18) and a greater percentage who are dissatisfied with their current situation when compared to other types of careers,and dramatically higher than male technicians and engineers.Since not all human resources in science and technology can become researchers,the results here seem to show another problem that women might have in becoming human resources in science and technology.

  As can be seen from the foregoing,attracting women so that they can demonstrate their skills over the long term and thereby contribute to the development of Japan's science and technology will need development of career paths and work-places that are appealing to women,and greater effort to encourage women's entry into the human resource pool for science and technology.

Figure1-3-18Percentage of workers wanting a change of occupation

(2)Aged Researchers (Aging of Researchers)

  As society steadily becomes more aged with fewer children,the need to assure a steady supply of qualified human resources in science and technology is raising expectations for demonstrations of creativity from older researchers who have stepped back from the front lines of research into more managerial or supportive guidance roles.

  As shown in Figure1-3-19 and Figure1-3-20 ,the average age of people working in various occupations is steadily rising,a trend that is surely evident for researchers and for science and technology human resources in general.In particular,university teachers are five years older,on average,than the average for workers in general.

Figure1-3-19Trends in average age(estimate)by occupation,etc.

(Age and Creativity)

  With researchers becoming progressively older,a survey research report has been issued examining how researcher creativity changes as they grow older in age.According to the report,general research and development skills divide broadly into intellectual skills and personal performance,with intellectual skills further dividing into(1)creativity and concept development skills,and(2)knowledge,experience,and technical skill,while personal performance can be divided into(1)desire and physical strength and(2)character.Of these skills,the S and a pattern in Figure1-3-21 for the creativity and concept development skill shows that researchers can adequately demonstrate capability well past the age of60,and can continue showing results (Figure1-3-21) .The survey research report takes a comprehensive look at trends for such other skills as desire and physical strength,and concludes that about40%of researchers can be expected to maintain research capabilities for the long term even at around age65.

Figure1-3-20Age composition of university teachers and of researchers at private-sector enterprises

Figure1-3-21Skill trend patterns for creativity and concept development

  Moreover,a survey asking"until what age can a technician be active on the front line?"found that over60%of Japanese technicians thought that the age limit was in the late30s to early40s.By contrast,70-80%of respondents in the United States,the United Kingdom,and Germany said that age was no factor at all (Table1-3-22) and,unlike Japan,would not indicate an age limit.

Table1-3-22International comparisons of what age technicians can be active on the front lines

(Activity Fields for Aged Researchers)

  With longer,healthier lives,and with plans to delay the starting age for pension payments due to the effects of fewer children,the working career lifespan is now expected to grow longer.But merely extending the employment period without changing the seniority-based promotion system,or without fully implementing promotion as reward for skills,will result in loss of opportunities for promotion of younger people,as well as loss of research workplace vitality.

  In a questionnaire conducted at research institutions in industry,academia,and government regarding the best way to handle middle-aged and older researchers and technicians(professors),all of the institutions responded that middle-aged and older researchers should be allowed to continue doing research if the results of performance evaluations are sufficient (Table1-3-23) .It is of absolute importance that such evaluations be truly rigorous and not just a mere formality,so that if evaluation results show that the researcher should not continue research,he or she,in the case of a university researcher,can be reassigned to teaching basic education to students,or in the case of a private-sector researcher,he or she can handle activities that contribute to society,such as technology transfer.

  The average age of researchers in private-sector enterprises is relatively young,with many people quickly moving up to management positions or transferring to other types of work.As Table1-3-24 shows,however,many companies allow capable researchers can remain active as researchers for long periods of time.

(3)Foreign Researchers (The Need to Internationalize Research Com munities)

  With increasing globalization,the range of activities for personnel engaged in intellectual labor is spilling beyond national borders.Moreover,as society rapidly becomes more reliant on intellectual infrastructure,countries everywhere are seeking top human resources from all over the world,adopting various measures to entice qualified personnel from foreign countries.

Table1-3-23Best ways to handle middle-aged and older researchers and technicians(professors)

  If Japan is to become a creative science and technology nation,it will need to take in well-qualified researchers from foreign countries,and to internationalize Japan's research community.Acceptance of foreign researchers makes it easier to obtain leading-edge knowledge from foreign countries,while interactions with foreign researchers boost intellectual stimulation and understanding of other cultures,which can be expected to contribute to the improvement of Japanese researcher capabilities.Furthermore,if researchers conducting research activities in Japan can be selected from among many researchers around the world,Japan's research environment could become much more competitive.In a survey conducted by the Ministry of Education,Culture,Sports,Science and Technology on the positive aspects of acceptance of foreign researchers,34.3%of respondents said that the"capabilities of Japanese researchers are stimulated" (Table1-3-25) .

Table1-3-24 Treatment of elderly researchers in private-sector enterprises

Table1-3-25 Positive aspects for acceptance of foreign researchers(top five)

  The United States is the most active country in the world in terms of research and development activities.As can be seen in Table1-3-26 ,non-U.S.citizens account for10%of all researchers and technicians with doctorates in the United States,and nearly80%of these people have secured permanent residency in that country.In IT-related fields,in particular,foreign citizens hold27%of all doctorates,evidence that the United States has secured the conditions for obtaining a steady inflow of human resources from foreign countries in fields where demand for personnel is rising rapidly.

(Foreign Researchers in Japan)

  What is the current situation for foreign re-searchers in Japan? Figure1-3-27 shows the number of foreigners living in Japan with research and teaching qualifications.As can be seen,the number of foreign researchers and teachers rose rapidly during the1990s.By country of origin,about70%of foreigners with research qualifications were of Asian origin,of which more than half were from China.About20%came from Europe,while only about3%came from North America.For foreigners with teaching qualifications,47%were from Asia,21%were from Europe,and26%were from North America.While most of these teachers are assumed to be university professors,the number most likely also includes many language instructors,making it difficult to determine the exact number of foreign researchers.

Table1-3-26Nationality of people obtaining doctorates in the United States (by science sector)

Figure1-3-27Number of foreign researchers and teachers residing in Japan

  A survey by the National Institute of Science and Technology Policy found that in FY1998,38of the47national research institutions and quasi-governmental research and development institutions had foreign researchers in residence.

  There were2,125foreign researchers,of which63were regular employees,and2,062were fixed-term contract researchers.The most common country of origin was China,with441people(20.8%),followed by the United States,with232people(10.9%),and South Korea,with201people(9.5%).The foreign researchers accounted for19.2%of the total number of research and development personnel at the targeted institutions.

  The National Institute of Science and Technology Policy also surveyed271companies with capitalization of10billion yen or more,and found that about40%(112companies)employed foreign researchers.Among these112companies,561foreigners were employed in domestic research and development,of which240people(42.8%)were regular employees and321people(57.2%)were fixed-term contract researchers.These numbers amounted to just0.38%of the total number of R&D personnel employed in all industries,a very small percentage when compared to the19.2%at national research institutions and quasi-governmental research and development institutions.More than half(53.7%)had stays of three years or more in Japan.The most common country of origin was China,with214people(38.1%),followed by United States,with49people(8.7%),India,with48(8.6%),South Korea,with26(4.6%),and Germany,with24(4.3%).

Figure1-3-28 ,however,shows the results of an awareness survey for researchers in industry,academia,and government,asking the number of foreign researchers in the researcher's own research lab or research group.The survey found that just3.4%of respondents reported having one or more foreign researchers in their research lab or research group,and the total number of foreign researchers reported accounted for just0.9%of all researchers in the respondents'own research labs and research groups.A look at the survey results by research sector showed that"materials and nanotechnology"had the highest proportion of foreign researchers,at5.8%,followed by"frontier,"at5.3%,and"life sciences,"at3.0%.While a general comparison between various sectors is not possible because of differences in research expenses,grants-in-aid,and other factors that form the background to a sector's character and invitation conditions,the above-named sectors are areas where international exchanges are relatively more common.

Figure1-3-28Distribution of foreign researchers by research sector

  Moreover,excluding the frontier sector with its small sample,the percentage of foreign researchers was particularly high in the materials and nanotechnology sector.This is a sector where Japan has a relatively large number of inter-national scientific papers and has attracted a high number of citations,and is where Japan is said to be leading the world.The worldwide acclaim that Japan's research in this sector has received has undoubtedly attracted foreign researchers.

  Next is an analysis of the international exchange situation for Japan's research community in terms of exchange students. Figure1-3-29 compares the number of exchange students between OECD countries,with the number of exchange students entering a country and the number of exchange students departing from that country standardized as exchange students per1,000students.In addition,the number of entering students is divided by the number of departing students to obtain an inflow ratio.

Figure1-3-29 Evaluation of the mobility of foreign students in OECD countries

  In Figure1-3-29 ,the number of foreign exchange students coming to Japan from advanced nations is extremely low per1,000students when compared to number of students going to the United States or major European countries,demonstrating the low level of international exchanges at Japan's universities and colleges.A characteristic of the United States,which leads the world in the number of scientific papers published and in the number of citations as well as in the number of intellectual property rights,is the vastly larger number of exchange students entering the country over the number of students leaving to go to another country.While the United Kingdom,France,and Germany have about the same number of departing exchange students as Japan,they have many more exchange students entering,demonstrating their high levels of international exchange.

  A comparison of national inflow rates shows that only Japan among the advanced nations has an inflow rate of less than1.0.While one factor that may be affecting the inflow rate is the linguistic barrier of the Japanese language,more needs to be done to boost the appeal of Japan's universities and colleges so as to attract top foreign exchange students.

(Attracting Foreign Researchers)

  As can be seen in nanotechnology,a sector where Japan has obtained proud accomplishments and where many foreign researchers can be found,Japan needs to be assertive in presenting its excellent research results to the world.Furthermore,helping researchers who have come from foreign countries to have a stable life so that they can concentrate on research is also a necessity in order to attract top foreign researchers to Japan and to deliver results.The problems that need to be resolved are not limited to workplace issues at the research institute or to issues with other researchers,but also include the living environment for family members who come along with the foreign researcher,the high price of goods and other economic conditions,language barriers in daily life,and many other problems.In a survey conducted by the Ministry of Education,Culture,Sports,Science and Technology on the negative aspects behind acceptance of foreign researchers,many respondents said that much time must be expended in preparing a suitable living environment for the researchers (Table1-3-30) .It is plain,then,that targeting the foreign researcher alone is not enough;the researcher's family also needs adequate levels of support.

Table1-3-30Negative aspects for acceptance of foreign researchers(top five)

  The"Ninth Basic Plan for Employment Policy,"adopted by the Cabinet in August1999,includes a determination to"more actively pro-mote the acceptance of foreign laborers in specialist and technical fields,from the viewpoint of revitalizing Japan's economy and society,and achieving further internationalization."Moreover,the"Policy Guidelines for the Proper Shape of the Economy and Society,and for Economic Renewal"(adopted by the Cabinet in July1999),as well,call for efforts to"create a work and living environment that is appealing to human resources in both Japan and abroad"and to"boost policies supporting the development of exchange student lodging,in order to promote expanded acceptance of exchange students and support for work after graduation."

Figure1-3-31 shows the trend for the number of foreigners entering Japan.As can be seen,the number of teachers,researchers,technicians,and other specialist laborers has risen sharply since1990.One reason for the increase is the revision to the Immigration Control Law of1990,which granted Japanese emigrants down to the third generation the right to stay in Japan for up to three years,while at the same time lifting all work restrictions.The revised law also extended periods of stay and expanded the program for acceptance of foreign researchers.

Figure1-3-31Trends in number of foreigners entering Japan,by region of origin

  The Ministry of Health,Labour,and Welfare recently convened the Foreign Employment Problem Study Group,a group of experts from academia.In its report,issued in2002,the study group proposed that,in order to obtain outstanding human resources("elite human resources")possessing technology and knowledge capable of becoming a"detonator"stimulating growth in Japan's economy and society,the government should(1)reduce existing procedural barriers to entry and stay in Japan to as close to zero as possible,(2)adopt preferential measures for the entry and stay in Japan of foreign laborers and their families,and(3)adopt acceptance promoting measures in policies related to foreign laborers other than the immigration control system.


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