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PART Issues and Perspectives ofHigher Education

Demographic trends in the number of 18-year olds (the relevant age group for access to higher education) are a major factor affecting the scale of higher education.

Regarding the size of the population aged 18, there was a peak in 1966 caused by the first baby boom which had taken place immediately after World War , and there will be another peak in 1992 caused by the second baby boom.

During the years from the post-war period until 1975, the Government took the following measures for drastically expanding the quantitative scale of higher education: the formulation of a plan for increasing entrants to science and technology courses for 1957 through 1964: and the planned increase in the number of places for first-year students for 1965 through 1968. In addition, the government took certain measures for increasing the number of places for certain fields of study. One of the measures was a plan for setting up at least one medical institution in every prefecture. This plan was formulated on the basis of the "Basic Economic and Social Plan" (determined by the Cabinet in 1973) and implemented progressively from 1973. Another was a plan for expanding elementary teacher training courses which was designed to meet the increase in school enrollments caused by the second baby boom and was put into effect in the years from 1970 to 1979.

However it was not until 1975, when an overall plan for 1976 through 1980 was formulated, that the government attempted to form a systematic plan for a certain number of years with regard to the whole scale of higher education so as to cope with demographic trends in the university-age population.

The following sub-sections will give a historical review of government planning for the expansion of higher education.

(1) Expansion of higher education before 1975
1) Plans for increasing enrollments in the fields of science and technology

In December 1957 the Cabinet adopted a "New Long-term Economic Plan." And in 1960 it adopted a "Plan for Doubling National Income" on the basis of a drastic revision to the Plan adopted in 1957. In implementing these plans, it was required to secure relevant manpower. In this context the government formulated and implemented a plan for increasing 8,000 places for first-year students in science and technology fields for 1957 through 1960 and another plan for increasing 2,000 places for first-year students in the same fields for 1961 through 1964. (The latter plan was achieved in the shortened period of three years.) In accordance with these plans, universities expanded their faculties of engineering and increased the number of entrants to be admitted to engineering courses. As a result, the number of students enrolled in science and technology fields, which had accounted for 27% of all students in 1955, increased to 32% by 1970.

During the years from 1966 to 1968 a rapid increase in the number of university applicants could be seen. This was due to the fact that the generation born in the years of the "baby boom" immediately after World War reached the university entrance age (18) in these years. The number of 18-year olds, which was 1,950,000 in 1965, dramatically increased to 2,490,000 by 1966.

The Ministry of Education. Science and Culture increased the number of places for university entrants to a large extent with the basic aim of maintaining the proportion of successful university applicants at the same level (60%) as before the years when the number of 18-wear olds dramatically increased (namely, before 1966).In 1965 the number of places for university entrants was increased by 18,000, and the actual number of entrants was increased by 52,000. During the three years from1966 to 1968 the number of places was increased by 77,000 and the actual number of entrants by 123,000.

While the number of 18-year olds began to decrease in 1969 and continued to decrease until 1976, the proportion of upper secondary school students wishing to go on to higher education continued to rise. due to the improvement of the level of people's income, an increase in the number of children advancing to upper secondary schools, increased demands for human resources from industry, and other factors. The proportion of the age group advancing to higher education increased by 2~3%per year, and exceeded 20% by 1969 and went beyond 30% by 1974.

In 1975 the number of entrants to universities, junior colleges and the fourth year of colleges of technology reached 610,000, and the proportion of the age group going on to these institutions rose to 38.4%. Such a rapid expansion of the scale of higher education caused the following imbalances and problems:

Firstly, the rapid expansion of the scale of higher education led to a deterioration of the conditions of the educational process. The expansion was brought about mainly through a rapid increase in the number of entrants to private universities. The rapid increase in enrollment in these institutions caused the criticism that private universities were engaged in "mass education". The ratio of the actual number of entrants to the number of places in private institutions rose from 1.50 in 1960 to 1.79 in 1975.

Secondly, the rapid expansion of the scale of higher education brought about an excessive concentration of universities in large cities, as well as regional imbalances in access to higher education. In 1975, there were approximately 1,550,000 students enrolled in universities and junior colleges located in the three regions with the six largest cities (namely, the Southern Kanto region with Tokyo and Yokohama, the Tokai region with Nagoya and the Kinki region with Kyoto, Osaka and Kobe). These students accounted for 74% of all students in universities and junior colleges throughout the country.

Under these circumstances, in 1971 the Central Council for Education pointed out the necessity of formulating a definite plan for expanding and improving higher education. In 1972 a Consultative Committee on Higher Education was organized as an advisory organ to the Minister of Education, Science and Culture. With a view to coping adequately with the aforementioned situation, the Consultative Committee considered how to expand and improve higher education with a long-term perspective. As a result a "First-phase Plan for Higher Education for the Decade Beginning in 1976" was formulated for the years from 1976 to 1980. In December 1979 a University Chartering Planning Sub-committee of the University Chartering Council published a "Second-phase Plan for the Decade Beginning in1976" for the years from 1981 to 1986. During this decade, the number of 18-yearolds was expected to remain at the level of 1.5 million to 1.6 million. Therefore, the two plans envisaged to improve higher education provisions with a view to improving the conditions of the educational process through restricting the further quantitative expansion of higher education, through reducing excessive enrollments in private universities. and through other means. The plans also envisaged rectifying regional imbalances in access to higher education through, for example, Restricting the establishment or expansion of institutions of higher education in large cities. In 1975 some amendments were made to the Private School Law, and under the amended law the government determined that until 31 March 1981, as a principle, It would not approve the foundation of any private university, and it would not allow any private university to set up additional faculties or departments or to increase the number of their student places.

As a result of these policies. while during the decade under the two plans the proportion of the age group advancing to higher education remained at the same level as in the previous year (1975), the excessive enrollment in private universities and other unfavorable conditions of the educational environment were substantially rectified, and regional imbalances in access to higher education were also remedied to some extent.

It should be added that in 1976 the system of special training schools was created and advanced courses at special training schools began to play an important role in the higher education system.

With regard to the expansion and improvement of higher education for 1986 and thereafter, the University Chartering Council published, in June 1984, a report of its Sub-committee on University Chartering Planning entitled "Planned Improvement of Higher Education for 1986 and Thereafter.

It was anticipated that in and after 1986 the size of the population aged 18 would undergo a rapid and dramatic change: it would begin to increase in 1986 and reach a peak of 2,050,000 in 1992 and then it would begin to decrease and reach 1,500,000 in 2000, Under these circumstances, the report suggested a basic framework and specific policies for a planned improvement of higher education for the seven years from 1986 to 1992.

A brief outline of the plan suggested by the Sub-committee is presented as follows:

The qualitative improvement of higher education should be attempted with a view to achieving three goals: making institutions of higher education more open internationalizing these institutions and creating distinctive and unique characteristics for each institution. The report defines higher education not only as education available in universities, junior colleges and colleges of technology but also as diverse patters of education at the post-secondary level, including education offered in advanced courses at special training schools.

The report adopted the idea that, in 1992 when the population aged 18 will reach a peak, the proportion of the age group advancing to higher education should be maintained at the same level (35.6%) as in 1983. Based on this idea, the report envisaged that universities, junior colleges and colleges of technology be expanded with the aim of increasing 86,000 places for entrants during the seven years from1986 to 1992. Of this total, 44,000 should be defined as "tentative additional places" for a certain period only, considering that 18-year olds are expected to rapidly decrease in 1993 and thereafter.

As in the past restriction should continue to be placed on the concentration of universities and junior colleges in large cities, and priority in the expansion of higher education establishments should be given to small cities.

In the light of this plan, during the four years from 1986 to 1989 the total number of places for first-year students increased by about 95,000 (about 45,000 of these were defined as tentative additional places). This increase was nearly ten thousand more than the target number (namely, 86,000) envisaged in the plan. On the other hand, however, the following situation was witnessed: 1) as definite progress had been made in reducing excessive enrollment in private universities, the increase in the actual number of entrants (rather than the number of places) was less than the target number envisaged in the p1an; and 2) since the number of applicants to universities and junior colleges. as well as the percentage of upper secondary school students applying to these institutions, had increased to a greater extent than had been anticipated. a great number of students failed to enter these institutions. Accordingly, in February 1989, the University Council recommended that, during the process of implementing the current higher education plan, the number of additional places. including "tentative" ones. should continue to be increased. As a result, the total number of additional places reached about 111,000 by the beginning of the 1990 academic year. Further, the Ministry has taken measures to mitigate the restriction on the increase in the number of places for private universities. so that these universities may increase the number of "tentative" additional places for 1991 and 1992.

Due to the implementation of the above plan, regional imbalances in access to higher education have been gradually rectified. With regard to the qualitative improvement of higher education, progress has been made in such arrangements as: credit transfers between universities; supervision and guidance of graduate students by professors at other universities or research institutes; and the admission of working people to universities. Further coping with the prevalent trends of the times, a lot of new faculties and departments have been created or added in those fields for which there are growing manpower demands. Such fields include information science, information processing and international cultural studies.